Arithmetic textbooks in Estonia, Iceland and Norway – similarities and differences during the nineteenth century

Abstract

This paper identifies similarities and eventual differences in the development of public mathematics education in the nineteenth century in three Northern-European countries: Estonia, Iceland and Norway. Special attention is paid to how these developments were reflected in the first arithmetic textbooks written in the vernacular in these countries. By the end of the century, all three countries had taken serious steps to develop public education, and arithmetic textbooks, meant for self-instruction or for use in elementary schools, had been published. The content and style of presentation of these textbooks in Estonia, Iceland and Norway are described and compared in the paper, revealing their roots in Northern-European culture: Lutheran Protestantism, Enlightenment and pedagogical currents initiated by Comenius, Pestalozzi and Spencer, emphasizing meaningful learning. Their educational aims were important driving forces in growing national movements in the respective countries by contributing to capability to manage own resources and use of own vernacular, resulting in increased self-esteem.