Health impact of electric discharge weapons: a review of case studies

Autores/as

  • Marie Brasholt Danish Institute against Torture, DIGNITY
  • Maha Aon Danish Institute against Torture, DIGNITY and Faculty of Health Sciences, American university of Beirut (AUB)
  • Lisa Michaelsen Danish Institute against Torture, DIGNITY
  • Jens Modvig

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.7146/torture.v34i1.144572

Palabras clave:

Electric discharge weapon (EDW), Conducted energy weapon (CEW), Conducted energy device (CED), taser

Resumen

Introduction

Electrical discharge weapons (EDWs) are increasingly used by law enforcement around the globe as a less lethal option to firearms. Concerns have been raised about their use, inter alia from the UN Committee Against Torture (UNCAT).

The purpose of this manuscript is to provide an overview of case studies to assess the health consequences of EDW exposure. 

Methods

Medline and Pubmed were searched for case studies on EDWs without restriction on language or date. Screening was first at abstract level and then at full article level. Articles were excluded if they were not case studies, concerned children under 15 years old or were off topic. A PRISMA flow diagram was created.

Results

A total of 71 studies were included, and they demonstrate a wide range of health consequences from minor injuries to lethal conditions. The injuries can be classified as direct and indirect, i.e., related to the use itself (e.g., penetration by darts) and related to falls and burns following neuromuscular incapacitation and ignition of flammable fluids. Cardiac incidents – some being fatal - were the health consequences found most reported, but the relation to the EDW is contested. In other cases, a very plausible association is established between EDW exposure and the health consequences. Description of pain and mental suffering related to EDW exposure was lacking in the reviewed case studies.

Discussion

EDWs may lead to physical and most likely mental suffering. When assessing patients and when documenting cases where persons may have been exposed to EDWs, including torture and ill-treatment cases, it is important to be aware of the different types of health consequences.

Biografía del autor/a

Marie Brasholt, Danish Institute against Torture, DIGNITY

This is the first author. Kindly note authorship order: Marie Brasholt, Maha Aon, Lisa Michaelsen, Jens Modvig.

Citas

Abada, H., Aktouf, A., Delaunay, F., Lievain, L., & Auquit-Auckbur, I. (2014). Alopecia reconstruction by expansion after a scalp burn injury caused by Taser((R)): A case report. Annales de dermatologie et de venereologie, 141(12), 769–772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annder.2014.06.012

Abdelaty, M., Kandil, M. A., & Walsh, K. (n.d.). Bone-Penetrating TASER Bolt: A Rare Case of Penetrating Injury to the Middle Phalanx of the Little Finger. Cureus, 13(11), e19461. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.19461

Al-Jarabah, M., Coulston, J., & Hewin, D. (2008). Pharyngeal perforation secondary to electrical shock from a Taser gun. Emergency Medicine Journal : EMJ. https://doi.org/10.1136/emj.2007.056416

Anders, S., Junge, M., Schulz, F., & Puschel, K. (2003). Cutaneous current marks due to a stun gun injury. J Forensic Sci, 48(3), 640–642.

Axon Enterprise, Inc. (2018). TASER Handheld CEW Warnings, Instructions, and Information: Law Enforcement. file:///C:/Users/ma/Downloads/V22%20TASER%20Handheld%20CEW%20Law%20Enforcement%20Warnings.pdf

Axon Law Enforcement. (2024). https://www.axon.com/industries/law-enforcement

Baldwin, D. E., Nagarakanti, R., Hardy, S. P., Jain, N., Borne, D. M., England, A. R., Nix, E. D., Daniels, C. L., Abide, W. P., & Glancy, D. L. (2010). Myocardial infarction after taser exposure. The Journal of the Louisiana State Medical Society : Official Organ of the Louisiana State Medical Society, 162(5), 291–292, 294–295.

Baliatsas, C., Gerbecks, J., Dückers, M. L. A., & Yzermans, C. J. (2021). Human Health Risks of Conducted Electrical Weapon Exposure: A Systematic Review. JAMA Network Open, 4(2), e2037209. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.37209

Becour, B. (2013a). Conducted Electrical Weapons or Stun Guns. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 34(2), 142–146. https://doi.org/10.1097/PAF.0b013e31828873d6

Becour, B. (2013b). Conducted Electrical Weapons or Stun Guns: A review of 46 cases examined in casualty. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 34(2), 142–146. https://doi.org/10.1097/PAF.0b013e31828873d6

Belen, E., Tipi, F. F., Bayyigit, A., & Helvaci, A. S. (2015). Acute inferior myocardial infarction after electrical weapon exposure: Case report and review of the literature. Turk Kardiyol Dern Ars, 43(2), 178–181. https://doi.org/10.5543/tkda.2015.79328

Bell, N., Moon, M., & Dross, P. (2013). Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) in association with a Taser-induced electrical injury. Emergency Radiology, 21(2), 211–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10140-013-1180-2

Ben Ahmed, H., Bouzouita, K., Selmi, K., Chelli, M., Mokaddem, A., Ben Ameur, Y., & Boujnah, M. (2013). Myocardial infarction after conducted electrical weapon shock. Ann. Cardiol. Angeiol., 62(2), 124–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ancard.2012.03.006

Bonnan, M., Zerbib, J. L., Barroso, B., Puvilland, L. M., Demasles, S., Marasescu, R., & Krim, E. (2019). Acute brachial plexus lesion complicating a stun-gun assault. Revue Neurologique, 175(1–2), 87–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurol.2018.01.374

Bozeman, W. P., Hauda, W. E., Heck, J. J., Graham, D. D., Martin, B. P., & Winslow, J. E. (2009). Safety and injury profile of conducted electrical weapons used by law enforcement officers against criminal suspects. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 53(4), 480–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2008.11.021

Bui, Sourkes, & Wennberg. (2009). Generalized tonic-clonic seizure after a taser shot to the head. CMAJ, 180(6), 625–626.

Burdett-Smith, P. (1997). Stun gun injury. Emergency Medicine Journal, 14(6), 402–404. https://doi.org/10.1136/emj.14.6.402

Burmatov, A. P., Bernatskikh, T. K., Zoroastrov, O. M., Lotter, M. G., Burmatov, N. A., & Zoroastrov, M. O. (2011). Marks on the human and animal skin after contact with an electrical discharge device. Sudebno-meditsinskaia ekspertiza, 54(6), 41–43.

Campbell, F., & Clark, S. (2019). Penetrating facial trauma from a Taser barb. The British Journal of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, 57(2), 188–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjoms.2018.12.009

Cao, M., Shinbane, J. S., Gillberg, J. M., & Saxon, L. A. (2007). Taser-induced rapid ventricular myocardial capture demonstrated by pacemaker intracardiac electrograms. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 18(8), 876–879. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-8167.2007.00881.x

Chandler, J., Martin, B. P., & Graham, D. D. (2013). TASER((R)) injury to the forehead. J Emerg Med, 44(1), e67-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2011.06.009

Cheek, S., Shifflette, V., & Dunn, E. (2013). Foreign Body Removal: A Shocking Story. The American Surgeon, 79(1), 35–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/000313481307900119

Chen, S. L., Richard, C. K., Murthy, R. C., & Lauer, A. K. (2006). Perforating ocular injury by Taser. Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 34(4), 378–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9071.2006.01228.x

Coad, F., & Maw, G. (2014). TASERed during training: An unusual scapular fracture. Australasian College for Emergency Medicine and Australasian Society for Emergency Medicine, 206–207. https://doi.org/10.1111/1742-6723.12206

Council Of Europe. (2013). Report to the Russian Government on the visit to the North Caucasian region of the Russian Federation carried out by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) from 27 April to 6 May 2011 (CPT/Inf (2013) 1).

Council Of Europe. (2015). Report to the Bulgarian Government on the visit to Bulgaria carried out by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) from 24 March to 3 April 2014 (CPT/Inf (2015) 12).

Crawley, K., Taylor, R., & Sandhu, A. (2023). Frontal Sinus Injury Secondary to TASER Dart: A Narrative Review. Journal of Maxillofacial and Oral Surgery, 22(3), 666–668. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12663-022-01790-7

De Courcey, C., & Jones, M. A. (2021). Taser barb penetration causing phalangeal fracture. BMJ Case Reports, 14(5), e240953. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2020-240953

de Runz, A., Minetti, C., Brix, M., & Simon, E. (2014). New TASER injuries: Lacrimal canaliculus laceration and ethmoid bone fracture. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 43(6), 722–724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijom.2013.12.006

Dearing, M., & Lewis, T. J. (2005). Foreign body lodged in distal phalanx of left index finger-taser dart. Emerg Radiol, 11(6), 364–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10140-005-0428-x

DeepL SE. (n.d.). DeepL Translator. Retrieved April 3, 2024, from https://www.deepl.com/translator

Delavar, B., & Thompson, M. A. (2021). Penetrating Intracranial Taser Injury. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 61(5), 590–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2021.07.071

Dunet, B., Erbland, A., Abi-Chahla, M. L., Tournier, C., & Fabre, T. (2015). The TASERed finger: A new entity. Case report and review of literature. Chir Main, 34(3), 145–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.main.2015.04.001

England, J., Brown, W., & Dearin, J. (2015). Sudden cardiac arrest associated with application of shocks from a TASER Electronic Control Device. Heart Lung and Circulation, 24(SUPPL. 3), S230. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hlc.2015.06.284

European Council. (2011, December 21). Council Regulation (EC) No 1236/2005 of 27 June 2005 concerning trade in certain goods which could be used for capital punishment, torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, CELEX1 [Website]. https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/e7749622-48ca-4339-a7e0-92b363c975cb/language-en

Feeney, C., Vu, J., & Ani, C. (2010). Acute Agitated Delirious State Associated With Taser Exposure. Journal of the National Medical Association, 102(12), 1254–1257.

Gapsis, B. C., Hoang, A., Nazari, K., & Morcos, M. (2017). Ocular manifestations of TASER-induced trauma. Trauma Case Rep, 12, 4–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcr.2017.10.001

Gardner, A. R., Hauda, W. E., & Bozeman, W. P. (2012). Conducted electrical weapon (TASER) use against minors: A shocking analysis. Pediatric Emergency Care, 28(9), 873–877. https://doi.org/10.1097/PEC.0b013e31826763d1

Giaconi, J., Ries, M., & Steinbach, L. (2011). Stun gun induced myotendinous injury of the iliopsoas and gluteus minimus. Journal of the International Skeletal Society A Journal of Radiology, Pathology and Orthopedics, 40(6), 783–787. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00256-011-1105-7

Gleason, J. B., & Ahmad, I. (2015). TASER® Electronic Control Device-Induced Rhabdomyolysis and Renal Failure: A Case Report. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research : JCDR, 9(10), HD01–HD02. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2015/15465.6608

Gross, E., Porterieko, J., & Joseph, D. (2013). Rhabdomyolysis and Oliguric Renal Failure after Use of TASER®: Is It Really Safe? (Vol. 79).

Haegeli, L. M., Sterns, L. D., Adam, D. C., & Leather, R. A. (2006). Effect of a Taser shot to the chest of a patient with an implantable defibrillator. Heart Rhythm, 3(3), 339–341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hrthm.2005.12.012

Han, J. S., Chopra, A., & Carr, D. (2009). Ophthalmic injuries from a TASER. CJEM, 11(01), 90–93. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1481803500010976

Hinchey, P. R., & Subramaniam, G. (2009). Pneumothorax as a complication after TASER activation. Prehospital Emergency Care : Official Journal of the National Association of EMS Physicians and the National Association of State EMS Directors, 13(4), 532–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/10903120903144890

Holder, E. H., Robinson, L. O., Laub, J. H., & MacDonald, J. (2011). Police use of force: Tasers and other less-lethal weapons. National Institute of Justice. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.5100.4647

Hudak, L. A., Marti, J. J., & Houry, D. E. (2011). Bilateral patellar tendon rupture after stun gun shock. Injury Extra, 42(11), 186–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2011.06.421

Jenkinson, E., Neeson, C., & Bleetman, A. (2006). The relative risk of police use-of-force options: Evaluating the potential for deployment of electronic weaponry. J Clin Forensic Med, 13(5), 229–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcfm.2005.11.006

Jey, A., Hull, P., Kravchuk, V., Carillo, B., & Martel, J. B. (2016). Emergent diagnosis and management of TASER penetrating ocular injury. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 34(8), 1740.e3-1740.e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2016.01.005

Kim, P. J., & Franklin, W. H. (2005). Ventricular Fibrillation after Stun-Gun Discharge. The New England Journal of Medicine, 353(9), 958–959. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc051625

Koscove, E. M. (1987). Taser® dart ingestion. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 5(6), 493–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/0736-4679(87)90212-5

Kroll, M. W., Adamec, J., Wetli, C. V., & Williams, H. E. (2016). Fatal traumatic brain injury with electrical weapon falls. J Forensic Leg Med, 43, 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2016.07.001

Kroll, M. W., Lakkireddy, D. R., Stone, J. R., & Luceri, R. M. (2014). TASER electronic control devices and cardiac arrests: Coincidental or causal? Circulation, 129(1), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.113.004401

Kroll, M. W., Ritter, M. B., & Williams, H. E. (2017). Fatal and non-fatal burn injuries with electrical weapons and explosive fumes. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 50, 6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2017.06.001

Le Blanc-Louvry, I., Gricourt, C., Touré, E., Papin, F., Proust, B., Le Blanc-Louvry, I., Gricourt, C., Touré, E., Papin, F., & Proust, B. (2012). A brain penetration after Taser injury: Controversies regarding Taser gun safety. Forensic Sci Int, 221(1–3), e7-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.03.027

Lee, B. K., Vittinghoff, E., Whiteman, D., Park, M., Lau, L. L., & Tseng, Z. H. (2009). Relation of Taser (electrical stun gun) deployment to increase in in-custody sudden deaths. The American Journal of Cardiology, 103(6), 877–880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.11.046

Lewis, M. C., & Lewis, D. E. (2016). Frontal Sinus TASER Dart Injury. 50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2015.09.024

Li, J. Y., & Hamill, M. B. (2013). Catastrophic Globe Disruption as a Result of a TASER Injury. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 44(1), 65–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2011.03.010

Lokdam, N., Hincheli, N. L., & Aon, M. (2018). DIGNITY Fact Sheet Collection, Health #3: Electric Discharge Weapons (EDWs). https://dignity.dk/wp-content/uploads/electric-discharge-weapons-factsheet-english.pdf

Maher, P. J., Beck, N., Strote, J., & Med, J. (2015). Pneumomediastinum and pulmonary interstitial emphysema after tracheal taser injury. Emergency Medicine Journal : EMJ, 32(1), 90. https://doi.org/10.1136/emermed-2013-203160

Mangus, B. E., Shen, L. Y., Helmer, S. D., Maher, J., & Smith, R. S. (2008). Taser and Taser associated injuries: A case series. The American Surgeon, 74(9), 862–865.

Mehl, L. E. (1992). Electrical injury from tasering and miscarriage. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/00016349209007967

Moysidis, S. N., Koulisis, N., Rodger, D. C., Chao, J. R., Leng, T., de Carlo, T., Burkemper, B., Ediriwickrema, L. S., George, M. S., Jiang, Y., Bohm, K. J., Gulati, S., Torres, R. J., Meallet, M. A., Moshfeghi, A. A., Flynn, H. W., Mieler, W. F., Williams, G. A., Humayun, M. S., & Eliott, D. (2019). Thomas A. Swift’s Electric Rifle Injuries to the Eye and Ocular Adnexa: The Management of Complex Trauma. Ophthalmol Retina, 3(3), 258–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oret.2018.10.005

Multerer, S., Berkenbosch, J. W., Das, B., & Johnsrude, C. (2009). Atrial fibrillation after taser exposure in a previously healthy adolescent. Pediatric Emergency Care, 25(12), 851–853. https://doi.org/10.1097/PEC.0b013e3181c399a9

Naunheim, R. S., Treaster, M., & Aubin, C. (2010). Ventricular fibrillation in a man shot with a Taser. Emergency Medicine Journal, 27(8), 645–646. https://doi.org/10.1136/emj.2009.088468

Ng, W., & Chehade, M. (2005). Taser penetrating ocular injury. Am J Ophthalmol, 139(4), 713–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajo.2004.11.039

NIJ. (2009, August 3). The Use-of-Force Continuum. National Institute of Justice. https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/use-force-continuum

Paninski, R. J., Marshall, M. E., & Link, M. S. (2013). ICD Oversensing Caused by TASER. Journal of Cardiovascular Electrophysiology, 24(1), 101–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/jce.12046

Plenzig, S., Verhoff, M. A., Gruber, H., & Kunz, S. N. (2021). Aspiration-related pneumonia after Taser exposure – A multiple causations mechanism. Forensic Science International (Online), 326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110906

Pope, T. D., Japra, N., Shah, A. D., & Lloyd, M. (2023). Real-time monitoring of an implantable cardiac device during taser device discharge. HeartRhythm Case Reports, 9(6), 420–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrcr.2023.03.020

Quora. (2019). How much does a taser hurt really? Quora. https://www.quora.com/How-much-does-a-taser-hurt-really

Rafailov, L., Temnogorod, J., Tsai, F. F., & Shinder, R. (2017). Impaled Orbital TASER Probe Injury Requiring Primary Enucleation. Ophthalmic Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, 33(3S), S176–S177. https://doi.org/10.1097/IOP.0000000000000486

Rehman, T. U., Yonas, H., & Marinaro, J. (2007). Intracranial penetration of a TASER dart. American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 25(6), 733.e3-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2006.12.017

Richards, K. A., Kleuser, L. P., & Kluger, J. (2008). Fortuitous Therapeutic Effect of Taser Shock for a Patient in Atrial Fibrillation. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 52(6), 686–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2008.04.023

Sanford, J. M., Jacobs, G. J., Roe, E. J., & Terndrup, T. E. (2011). Two patients subdued with a TASER(R) device: Cases and review of complications. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 40(1), 28–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2007.10.059

Sayegh, R., Madsen, K., Adler, J., Johnson, M., & Mathews, M. (2011). Diffuse retinal injury from a non-penetrating TASER dart. The Journal of Clinical Electrophysiology and Vision - The Official Journal of the International Society for Clinical Electrophysiology and Vision, 123(2), 135–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10633-011-9287-9

Schwarz, E. S., Barra, M., & Liao, M. M. (2009). Successful resuscitation of a patient in asystole after a TASER injury using a hypothermia protocol. (Vol. 27). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2008.07.042

Semple, T., Jenkins, B., & Bennell, C. (2021). Injuries and deaths proximate to oleoresin capsicum spray deployment: A literature review. https://journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.aub.edu.lb/doi/10.1177/0032258X20926873

Seth, R. K., Abedi, G., Daccache, A. J., & Tsai, J. C. (2007). Cataract secondary to electrical shock from a Taser gun. Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrs.2007.04.037

Sharabura, A. B., Fong, J. W., & Pemberton, J. D. (2021). Ocular TASER Probe Injury Managed with Primary Evisceration: Case Report. Case Reports in Ophthalmology, 12(3), 934–939. https://doi.org/10.1159/000520460

Sharma, A., Theivacumar, N. S., & Souka, H. M. (2009). Tasers—Less than lethal! Ann R Coll Surg Engl, 91(4), W20-1. https://doi.org/10.1308/147870809x400958

Sheppard, K. G., & Welsh, B. C. (2022). Can police use of less-than-lethal weapons reduce harm during violent police-citizen encounters? A systematic review and directions for future research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 64, 101748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2022.101748

Sloane, C. M., Chan, T. C., & Vilke, G. M. (2008). Thoracic Spine Compression Fracture After TASER Activation. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 34(3), 283–285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2007.06.034

Strote, J., Walsh, M., Angelidis, M., Basta, A., & Hutson, H. R. (2010). Conducted Electrical Weapon Use by Law Enforcement: An Evaluation of Safety and Injury. The Journal of TRAUMA Injury Infection and Critical Care, 68(5), 1239–1246. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e3181b28b78

Swerdlow, C. D., Fishbein, M. C., Chaman, L., Lakkireddy, D. R., & Tchou, P. (2009). Presenting rhythm in sudden deaths temporally proximate to discharge of TASER conducted electrical weapons. Acad Emerg Med, 16(8), 726–739. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1553-2712.2009.00432.x

Takats, S., Stillman, D., Cheslack-Postava, F., Bagdonas, M., Jullinek, A., Najdek, T., Petrov, D., Rentka, M., & Venčkauskas, A. (2023). Zotero (6.0.26) [Windows 10]. Https://www.zotero.org/ [Computer software]. Corporation for Digital Scholarship.

Terrill, W., & III, E. A. P. (2012). Conducted Energy Devices (CEDs) and Citizen Injuries: The Shocking Empirical Reality. Justice Quarterly, 29(2), 153–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2010.549834

Teymoorian, S., San Filippo, A. N., Poulose, A. K., & Lyon, D. B. (2010). Perforating Globe Injury From Taser Trauma. Ophthalmic Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, 26(4), 306–308.

Theisen, K., Slater, R., & Hale, N. (2016). Taser-Related Testicular Trauma. Urology, 88, e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2015.11.011

Tyagi, A., Gill, A., & Felton, B. (2017). Thoracic Compression Fracture as a Result of Taser® Discharge. Clinical Practice and Cases in Emergency Medicine, 1(4), 319–322. https://doi.org/10.5811/cpcem.2017.7.33508

UNCAT. (2008). Conclusions and recommendations of the United Nations Committee against Torture: Portugal (CAT/C/PRT/CO/4). https://www.refworld.org/docid/4804a62e2.html

UNCAT. (2018). Concluding observations on the seventh periodic report of the Netherlands adopted by the United Nations Committee against Torture at its sixty-fifth session (12 November-7 December 2018). https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g18/442/89/pdf/g1844289.pdf?token=H6z7MrHMmGPFFlZpl3&fe=true

Wikipedia. (2024). Tom Swift and His Electric Rifle. In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tom_Swift_and_His_Electric_Rifle&oldid=1210275379

Willoughby, L., Peyton, K., Gorgas, D., & Li-Sauerwine, S. (2022). Leveraging Resources to Remove a Taser Barb Embedded in Bone: Case Report. Clinical Practice and Cases in Emergency Medicine, 6(1), 41–43. https://doi.org/10.5811/cpcem.2021.10.54196

Winslow, J. E., Bozeman, W. P., Fortner, M. C., & Alson, R. L. (2007). Thoracic Compression Fractures as a Result of Shock From a Conducted Energy Weapon: A Case Report. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 50(5), 584–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2007.06.008

Zipes, D. P. (2013). Response to Letters Regarding Article, “Sudden Cardiac Arrest and Death Following Application of Shocks From a TASER Electronic Control Device” (Vol. 127). https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.147520

Descargas

Publicado

2024-05-28 — Actualizado el 2024-05-28

Cómo citar

Brasholt, M., Aon, M., Michaelsen, L., & Modvig, J. (2024). Health impact of electric discharge weapons: a review of case studies. Torture Journal, 34(1), 48–61. https://doi.org/10.7146/torture.v34i1.144572