A criminal tribunal and a wide-ranging reparation programme is necessary for the victims of sexual violence and torture in Iraq
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7146/torture.v29i1.109995Palabras clave:
reparations, torture, Iraq, sexual violence and tortureResumen
The frequency and extreme nature of sexual violence committed in Iraq, primarily by the self-declared Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) from 2014 onwards, has shocked the international community. Now, four years later, victory over ISIL has been proclaimed but addressing past atrocities and their consequences has barely begun. There is a wide discrepancy between Iraq’s human rights obligations, stressed by the United Nations (UN), and the reality on the ground, shaped by the Iraqi authorities. The present paper aims to highlight this discrepancy by providing an overview of the crimes committed, their qualification under international law, and the efforts of Iraqi authorities to punish those responsible. It will also discuss legal frameworks and the role of the UN, before positing some possible solutions. Object of the inquiry. The primary object of this inquiry is the conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) that has taken place in Iraq since 2014. The term CRSV is used in the international discourse to designate sexual violence occurring during or following armed conflict. UN bodies have set a gravity threshold for defining CRSV—incidents or patterns of acts of sexual violence such as “rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity” (UN Action Against Sexual Violence in Conflict, 2011, p. 3)
Citas
Amnesty International. (2018). The Condemned: Women and Children Isolated, Trapped and Exploited in Iraq. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/MDE1481962018ENGLISH.PDF
Aranburu, X. A. (2010). Sexual violence beyond reasonable doubt: Using pattern evidence and analysis for international cases. Leiden Journal of International Law, 23(03), 609–627. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0922156510000245
Bellal, A. (2017). Non-state armed groups in transitional justice processes: Adapting to new realities of conflict. In Duthie, R & Seils. P. (Eds.), Justice Mosaics: How Context Shapes Transitional Justice in Fractured Societies (pp. 234-258). New York: International Center for Transitional Justice.
Burgers, J. H., & Danelius, H. (1988). The United Nations Convention Against Torture: A Handbook on the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. Dordrecht-Boston-London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Callimachi, R. (2018, April 4). The ISIS files. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/04/04/world/middleeast/isis-documents-mosul-iraq.html
CAT. (2002). H.M.H.I. v. Australia, CAT/C/28/D/177/2001, 1 May 2002.
CAT. (1999). Sadiq Shek Elmi v. Australia, CAT/C/22/D/120/1998, 25 May 1999.
Centre for International Law Research and Policy. (2017). International criminal law guidelines: Legal requirements of sexual and gender-based violence crimes. Retrieved from http://www.legal-tools.org/doc/c1c17c/
Danieli, Y. (2009). Massive trauma and the healing role of reparative justice. In Ferstman, C., Goetz, M. & Stephens, A. (Eds.), Reparations for Victims of Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity (pp. 41-78). Leiden-Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004174498.i-576
Gaeta, P. (2014). War crimes and other international ‘core’ crimes. In A. Clapham & P. Gaeta (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict (pp. 737–765). https://doi.org/10.1093/law/9780199559695.001.0001
Gaggioli, G. (2014). Sexual violence in armed conflicts: A violation of international humanitarian law and human rights law. International Review of the Red Cross, 96(894), 503–538. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383115000211
Henckaerts, J.-M., Doswald-Beck, L., & Alvermann, C. (2005). Customary international humanitarian law. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511804700
Human Rights Council. (2016). “They came to destroy”: ISIS Crimes Against the Yazidis. UN doc. A/HRC/32/CRP.2. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A_HRC_32_CRP.2_en.pdf
Human Rights Watch. (2017). Flawed justice: Accountability for ISIS crimes in Iraq. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/report/2017/12/05/flawed-justice/accountability-isis-crimes-iraq
ICTR. (1998). Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, ICTR-96-4-T, 2 September 1998.
ICTY. (2001a). Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., IT-96-23-T& IT-96-23/1-T, 22 February 2001.
ICTY. (2001b). Prosecutor v. Kvocka and others, IT-98-30/1-T, 2 November 2001.
ICTY. (2004). Prosecutor v. Brdjanin, IT-99-36-T, 1 September, 2004.
ICTY. (2008). Prosecutor v. Haradinaj et al., IT-04-84-T, 3 April 2008.
Iraqi Criminal Code. No. 111 of 1969. Retrieved from http://gjpi.org/2009/04/12/penal-code-111-of-1969/
Iraqi Criminal Procedure Code. No. 23 of 1971. Retrieved from http://gjpi.org/2009/04/25/criminal-procedure-code-23-of-1971/
Kaya, Z. (2017). Gender and statehood in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. Retrieved from http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/69197/1/GenderandStatehoodKRG.pdf
KRG, (2012) National strategy to confront violence against women in Kurdistan 2012-2016. Retrieved from http://www.ekrg.org/files/pdf/strategy_combat%20violence_against_women_English.pdf
Krug, E. G., et al. (Ed.). (2002). World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Marks, S., & Azizi, F. (2010). Responsibility for violations of human rights obligations: International mechanisms. In J. Crawford, A. Pellet, S. Olleson, & K. Parlett (Eds.), The Law of International Responsibility (pp. 725–737). New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/law/9780199296972.001.0001
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (n.d.). Ratification Status for Iraq. Retrieved from https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx?CountryID=82&Lang=EN
OHCHR. (2015). Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the human rights situation in Iraq in the light of abuses committed by the so-called Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant and associated groups. (13 March 2015). A/HRC/28/18. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/hrc/regularsessions/session28/pages/listreports.aspx
Press release of the Iraqi Presidency.(2019). Retrieved from https://presidency.iq/EN/Details.aspx?id=1343
Puttick, M. (2015). The lost women of Iraq: Family-based violence during armed conflict. London: Ceasefire Centre for Civilian Rights and Minority Rights Group International.
Rodley, N. S., & Pollard, M. (2009). The treatment of prisoners under international law (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199693566.001.0001
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. (1998). Retrieved from https://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/EA9AEFF7-5752-4F84-BE94-0A655EB30E16/0/Rome_Statute_English.pdf
Sandoval, C., & Puttick, M. (2017). Reparations for the victims of conflict in Iraq: Lessons learned from comparative practice. London: Ceasefire Centre for Civilian Rights and Minority Rights Group International.
Slavery Convention, Mar. 9, 1927, 60 L.N.T.S. 253.
Stoyanova, S. (2017). United Nations Against Slavery: Unravelling concepts, institutions and obligations. Michigan Journal of International Law, 38 (3), 359-454.
UN Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI). (2018). Civilian Casualties. Retrieved from http://www.uniraq.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=itemlist&layout=category&task=category&id=159&Itemid=633&lang=en
UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria. (2018). “I lost my dignity”: Sexual and gender-based violence in the Syrian Arab Republic. A/HRC/37/CRP.3. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A-HRC-37-CRP-3.pdf
UN General Assembly. (2006). Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/remedyandreparation.aspx
UN Secretary-General. (2018). Secretary-General Appoints Karim Asad Ahmad Khan of United Kingdom to Head Team Investigating Islamic State Actions in Iraq. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/sga1806.doc.htm
UN Secretary-General. (2014). Guidance Note of the Secretary‐General: Reparations for Conflict‐Related Sexual Violence. Retrieved from
UN Security Council. (2017). SC Res. 2379. Retrieved from https://undocs.org/S/RES/2379(2017)
UN Security Council. (2002). Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone. Retrieved from http://www.rscsl.org/Documents/scsl-statute.pdf
UN Security Council. (2018). Terms of Reference of the Investigative Team to Support Domestic Efforts to Hold ISIL (Da'esh) Accountable of Acts that May Amount to War Crimes, Crimes against Humanity and Genocide Committed in Iraq, established pursuant to Security Council resolution 2379 (2017): ToR. Retrieved from https://www.justsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/2018-02-09-TORs-UN-iraq-investigative-mechanism.pdf
UN Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions. (2018). Report on her official visit to Iraq (14-23 November 2017). A/HRC/38/44/Add.2. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Executions/Pages/CountryVisits.aspx
https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Press/GuidanceNoteReparationsJune-2014.pdf
UNAMI/OHCHR. (2014a). Report on the Protection of Civilians in the Non International Armed Conflict in Iraq: 5 June – 5 July 2014. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/IQ/UNAMI_OHCHR_POC%20Report_FINAL_18July2014A.pdf
UNAMI/OHCHR. (2014b). Report on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict in Iraq: 6 July – 10 September 2014. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/IQ/UNAMI_OHCHR_POC_Report_FINAL_6July_10September2014.pdf
UNAMI/OHCHR. (2014c). Report on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict in Iraq:11 September – 10 December 2014. Retrieved from http://www.uniraq.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=itemlist&layout=category&task=category&id=164&Itemid=650&lang=en&limitstart=12
UNAMI/OHCHR. (2016). A Call for Accountability and Protection: Yezidi Survivors of Atrocities Committed by ISIL. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/IQ/UNAMIReport12Aug2016_en.pdf
UNAMI/OHCHR. (2017). Report on Human Rights in Iraq January to June 2017. Retrieved from http://www.uniraq.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=itemlist&layout=category&task=category&id=164&Itemid=650&lang=en
Van Schaack, B. (2018). The Iraq investigative team and prospects for justice for the Yazidi genocide. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 16 (1), 113–139. https://doi.org/10.1093/jicj/mqy002
Wilkinson, S. (2011). Standards of proof in international humanitarian and human rights fact-finding and inquiry missions. Retrieved from https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/Standards%20of%20Proof%20in%20Fact-Finding.pdf
Yazidi Female Survivors´ Law, submitted to the Parliament on 28.03.2019. Retrieved from http://www.ina.iq/eng/4289/yazidi-female-survivors-law-details
Yüksel, S., Saner, S., Basterzi, A. D., Oglagu, Z., & Bülbül, I. (2018). Genocidal sexual assault on women and the role of culture in the rehabilitation process: Experiences from working with Yazidi women in Turkey. Torture Journal, 28(3), 123-132.
Descargas
Publicado
Cómo citar
Número
Sección
Licencia
We accept that some authors (e.g. government employees in some countries) are unable to transfer copyright. The Creative Commons Licence Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) covers both the Torture Journal and the IRCT web site. The publisher will not put any limitation on the personal freedom of the author to use material contained in the paper in other works which may be published, provided that acknowledgement is made to the original place of publication.
