Children who survive torture: A systematic review of screening, documentation and treatment of torture injuries in children
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7146/torture.v34i3.143968Keywords:
Cognitive behavioral therapy, Child, Documentation, Rehabilitation, Screening, TortureAbstract
Background: Children all over the world are subjected to torture, but few are identified as victims of these actions. Knowledge that facilitates identification, documentation, and treatment of torture injuries in children can allow redress and rehabilitation for more children in need. Objective: To synthesise research regarding screening, documentation, and treatment of child survivors of torture. Methods: A systematic literature review was conducted. A total of 4795 titles and/or abstracts were screened, of which 80 articles were included. Grey literature was also included. Results: Screening for torture exposure usually consisted of questions that were included in trauma questionnaires. Questions about perpetrators in the traumatic events were missing from more than half of the studies. Although children were screened mainly for psychological injuries, it was primarily physical injuries that were documented. The evidence on treatment effects was limited. However, there was a tendency that Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) and Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) significantly reduced PTSD up to three months to one year after the end of treatment. Treatments with individual and group-based formats, as well as those with normal and more intensified approaches, were found to have an effect on PTSD.
References
Abdalla, K., & Elklit, A. (2001). En landsdækkende screeningsundersøgelse af flygtningebørn fra Kosovo. Psykologisk Paedagogisk Rådgivning, 35(5), 339-348.
Ahmad, A., & Sundelin-Wahlsten, V. (2008). Applying EMDR on children with PTSD. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17(3), 127-132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-007-0646-8
Alayarian, A. (2009). Children, torture and psychological consequences. Torture, 19(2), 145-156.
Allodi, F., & Cowgill, G. (1982). Ethical and psychiatric aspects of torture: a Canadian study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 27(2), 98-102. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674378202700203
Amone-P'Olak, K. (2006). Mental states of adolescents exposed to war in Uganda: finding appropriate methods of rehabilitation. Torture, 16(2), 93-107.
Amone-P'Olak, K., Dokkedahl, S. B., & Elklit, A. (2017). Post-traumatic Stress Disorder among child perpetrators and victims of violence from the Northern Uganda civil war: Findings from the WAYS study. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 27(3), 235-242. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2017.1321849
Amone-P'Olak, K., Elklit, A., & Dokkedahl, S. B. (2018). PTSD, mental illness, and care among survivors of sexual violence in Northern Uganda: Findings from the WAYS study. Psychol Trauma, 10(3), 282-289. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000295
Amone-P'Olak, K., Garnefski, N., & Kraaij, V. (2007). Adolescents caught between fires: cognitive emotion regulation in response to war experiences in Northern Uganda. Journal of Adolescence, 30(4), 655-669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.05.004
Amone P'Olak, K. (2009). Torture against children in rebel captivity in Northern Uganda: physical and psychological effects and implications for clinical practice. Torture, 19(2), 102-117.
Asia, M. R. (2010). The relationship of level of traumatic exposure, perceived stress, and resilience with salivary cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase diurnal rhythm in Palestinian children 10-12 years exposed to chronic war violence. Dissertation. University of San Diego.
Başoğlu, M. (1999). Behavioural and cognitive approach in the treatment of torture-related psychological problems. In Torture and its consequences: Current treatment approaches. (pp. 402-429). Cambridge University Press.
Betancourt, T. S., Borisova, II, de la Soudière, M., & Williamson, J. (2011). Sierra Leone's child soldiers: war exposures and mental health problems by gender. Journal of Adolescent Health, 49(1), 21-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.09.021
Betancourt, T. S., McBain, R., Newnham, E. A., Akinsulure-Smith, A. M., Brennan, R. T., Weisz, J. R., & Hansen, N. B. (2014). A behavioral intervention for war-affected youth in Sierra Leone: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(12), 1288-1297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2014.09.011
Betancourt, T. S., Newnham, E. A., Layne, C. M., Kim, S., Steinberg, A. M., Ellis, H., & Birman, D. (2012). Trauma history and psychopathology in war-affected refugee children referred for trauma-related mental health services in the United States. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25(6), 682-690. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21749
Brunvatne, R., Lysgård, K. H., & Hjortdahl, P. (1995). [Psychosocial preventive work among war refugees. A task for primary health care?]. Tidsskrift for Den Norske Laegeforening, 115(1), 23-26. (Psykososialt forebyggende arbeid blant krigsflyktninger. En oppgave for primaerhelsetjenesten?)
Burgund Isakov, A., Husremović, D., Krasić, B., Marković, V., Milic, N., Ristić, T., Trkulja, A., & Žegarac, N. (2022). Wherever we go, Someone does us Harm: Violence against refugee and migrant children arriving in Europe through the Balkans. Save the Children International & Save the Children North West Balkans. https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/pdf/Wherever-we-go-someone-does-us-harm-WEB.pdf/
Chu, T., Keller, A. S., & Rasmussen, A. (2013). Effects of post-migration factors on PTSD outcomes among immigrant survivors of political violence. J Immigr Minor Health, 15(5), 890-897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-012-9696-1
Clément, R., Lebossé, D., Barrios, L., & Rodat, O. (2017). Asylum seekers alleging torture in their countries: Evaluation of a French center. J Forensic Leg Med, 46, 24-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2016.12.011
de Jong, J. T., Komproe, I. H., Van Ommeren, M., El Masri, M., Araya, M., Khaled, N., van De Put, W., & Somasundaram, D. (2001). Lifetime events and posttraumatic stress disorder in 4 postconflict settings. JAMA, 286(5), 555-562. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.286.5.555
den Otter, J. J., Smit, Y., dela Cruz, L. B., Ozkalipci, O., & Oral, R. (2013). Documentation of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment of children: A review of existing guidelines and tools. Forensic Science International, 224(1-3), 27-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.11.003
Derluyn, I., Broekaert, E., Schuyten, G., & De Temmerman, E. (2004). Post-traumatic stress in former Ugandan child soldiers. Lancet, 363(9412), 861-863. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(04)15734-6
DIGNITY - Danish Institute Against Torture. (2013). Field Manual of Rehabilitation https://dignity.dk/wp-content/uploads/Dignity-field-manual-rehabilitation.pdf
Durà-Vilà, G., Klasen, H., Makatini, Z., Rahimi, Z., & Hodes, M. (2013). Mental health problems of young refugees: duration of settlement, risk factors and community-based interventions. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry, 18(4), 604-623. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104512462549
Durrant, J. E. (2022). Corporal Punishment: From Ancient History to Global Progress. In R. Geffner, J. W. White, L. K. Hamberger, A. Rosenbaum, V. Vaughan-Eden, & V. I. Vieth (Eds.), Handbook of Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across the Lifespan: A project of the National Partnership to End Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan (NPEIV) (pp. 343-365). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89999-2_13
Ertl, V., Pfeiffer, A., Schauer, E., Elbert, T., & Neuner, F. (2011). Community-implemented trauma therapy for former child soldiers in Northern Uganda: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 306(5), 503-512. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1060
Evans, R. (2020). The Ethics of Torture: Definitions, History, and Institutions. In: Oxford University Press.
Geltman, P. L., Grant-Knight, W., Mehta, S. D., Lloyd-Travaglini, C., Lustig, S., Landgraf, J. M., & Wise, P. H. (2005). The "lost boys of Sudan": functional and behavioral health of unaccompanied refugee minors re-settled in the United States. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 159(6), 585-591. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.159.6.585
Gillies, D., Maiocchi, L., Bhandari, A. P., Taylor, F., Gray, C., & O'Brien, L. (2016). Psychological therapies for children and adolescents exposed to trauma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 10(10), Cd012371. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.Cd012371
Goldin, S., Levin, L., Persson, L. A., & Hägglof, B. (2001). Stories of pre-war, war and exile: Bosnian refugee children in Sweden. Medicine, Conflict and Survival, 17(1), 25-47. https://doi.org/10.1080/13623690108409553
Gupta, L., & Zimmer, C. (2008). Psychosocial intervention for war-affected children in Sierra Leone. British Journal of Psychiatry, 192(3), 212-216. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038182
Guy, K. M. (2009). Child soldiers as zones of violence in The Democratic Republic of Congo: three cases of medico-legal evidence of torture. Torture, 19(2), 137-144.
Haar, R. J., Wang, K., Venters, H., Salonen, S., Patel, R., Nelson, T., Mishori, R., & Parmar, P. K. (2019). Documentation of human rights abuses among Rohingya refugees from Myanmar. Confl Health, 13, 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-019-0226-9
Hampton, K., Mishori, R., Griffin, M., Hillier, C., Pirrotta, E., & Wang, N. E. (2022). Clinicians' perceptions of the health status of formerly detained immigrants. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 575. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12967-7
Hashemi, B., Ali, S., Awaad, R., Soudi, L., Housel, L., & Sosebee, S. J. (2017). Facilitating mental health screening of war-torn populations using mobile applications. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52(1), 27-33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1303-7
Hendriks, L., de Kleine, R. A., Heyvaert, M., Becker, E. S., Hendriks, G. J., & van Minnen, A. (2017). Intensive prolonged exposure treatment for adolescent complex posttraumatic stress disorder: a single-trial design. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 58(11), 1229-1238. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12756
Hjern, A., Angel, B., & Jeppson, O. (1998). Political violence, family stress and mental health of refugee children in exile. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine, 26(1), 18-25. https://doi.org/10.1177/14034948980260010701
Iacopino, V., Frank, M. W., Bauer, H. M., Keller, A. S., Fink, S. L., Ford, D., Pallin, D. J., & Waldman, R. (2001). A population-based assessment of human rights abuses committed against ethnic Albanian refugees from Kosovo. American Journal of Public Health, 91(12), 2013-2018. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.91.12.2013
Jordans, M. J., Komproe, I. H., Tol, W. A., & De Jong, J. T. (2009). Screening for psychosocial distress amongst war-affected children: cross-cultural construct validity of the CPDS. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 50(4), 514-523. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02028.x
Kamøy, K., Podieh, P., & Salarkia, K. (2021). Stop the War on Children: A crisis of recruitment. Save the Children International. https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/pdf/SWOC-5-5th-pp.pdf/
Keten, A., Akçan, R., Karacaoglu, E., Odabasi, A. B., & Tümer, A. R. (2013). Medical forensic examination of detained immigrants: is the Istanbul Protocol followed? Medicine, Science and the Law, 53(1), 40-44. https://doi.org/10.1258/msl.2012.011090
Kizilhan, J. I., & Noll-Hussong, M. (2018). Post-traumatic stress disorder among former Islamic State child soldiers in northern Iraq. British Journal of Psychiatry, 213(1), 425-429. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.88
Klasen, F., Oettingen, G., Daniels, J., Post, M., Hoyer, C., & Adam, H. (2010). Posttraumatic resilience in former Ugandan child soldiers. Child Development, 81(4), 1096-1113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01456.x
Kohrt, B. A., Jordans, M. J., Tol, W. A., Perera, E., Karki, R., Koirala, S., & Upadhaya, N. (2010). Social ecology of child soldiers: child, family, and community determinants of mental health, psychosocial well-being, and reintegration in Nepal. Transcult Psychiatry, 47(5), 727-753. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461510381290
Kohrt, B. A., Jordans, M. J., Tol, W. A., Speckman, R. A., Maharjan, S. M., Worthman, C. M., & Komproe, I. H. (2008). Comparison of mental health between former child soldiers and children never conscripted by armed groups in Nepal. JAMA, 300(6), 691-702. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.300.6.691
Layne, C. M., Saltzman, W. R., Poppleton, L., Burlingame, G. M., Pasalić, A., Duraković, E., Musić, M., Campara, N., Dapo, N., Arslanagić, B., Steinberg, A. M., & Pynoos, R. S. (2008). Effectiveness of a school-based group psychotherapy program for war-exposed adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(9), 1048-1062. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e31817eecae
Loko Roka, J., Van den Bergh, R., Au, S., De Plecker, E., Zachariah, R., Manzi, M., Lambert, V., Abi-Aad, E., Nanan-N'Zeth, K., Nzuya, S., Omba, B., Shako, C., MuishaBaroki, D., Basimuoneye, J. P., Moke, D. A., Lampaert, E., Masangu, L., & De Weggheleire, A. (2014). One size fits all? Standardised provision of care for survivors of sexual violence in conflict and post-conflict areas in the Democratic Republic of Congo. PLoS One, 9(10), e111096. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111096
Lokuge, K., Shah, T., Pintaldi, G., Thurber, K., Martínez-Viciana, C., Cristobal, M., Palacios, L., Dear, K., & Banks, E. (2013). Mental health services for children exposed to armed conflict: Médecins Sans Frontières' experience in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Iraq and the occupied Palestinian territory. Paediatr Int Child Health, 33(4), 259-272. https://doi.org/10.1179/2046905513y.0000000098
Lorek, A., Ehntholt, K., Nesbitt, A., Wey, E., Githinji, C., Rossor, E., & Wickramasinghe, R. (2009). The mental and physical health difficulties of children held within a British immigration detention center: a pilot study. Child Abuse and Neglect, 33(9), 573-585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.10.005
Lykke, J., & Timilsena, M. N. (2002). Evidence of torture in the mid west region of Nepal. Danish Medical Bulletin, 49(2), 159-162.
MacLean, S. A., Agyeman, P. O., Walther, J., Singer, E. K., Baranowski, K. A., & Katz, C. L. (2019). Mental health of children held at a United States immigration detention center. Social Science and Medicine, 230, 303-308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.04.013
Marc, B. (2016). Torture: Child Torture. In J. Payne-James & R. Byard (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal Medicine (2 ed., Vol. 4, pp. 565-571). Elsevier.
Martínez Torre, S., Carreño, C., Sordo, L., Llosa, A. E., Ousley, J., Waziri, A., Mathela, R., Umar, R. D., Usman, J., & Sagrado, M. J. (2022). Severity, symptomatology, and treatment duration for mental health disorders: a retrospective analysis from a conflict-affected region of northern Nigeria. Confl Health, 16(1), 41. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-022-00473-x
Massad, S., Khammash, U., & Shute, R. (2017). Political violence and mental health of Bedouin children in the West Bank, Palestine: a cross-sectional study. Medicine, Conflict and Survival, 33(3), 188-206. https://doi.org/10.1080/13623699.2017.1368307
Mateen, F. J., Carone, M., Nyce, S., Ghosn, J., Mutuerandu, T., Al-Saedy, H., Lowenstein, D. H., & Burnham, G. (2012). Neurological disorders in Iraqi refugees in Jordan: data from the United Nations Refugee Assistance Information System. Journal of Neurology, 259(4), 694-701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-011-6248-x
McMullen, J., O'Callaghan, P., Shannon, C., Black, A., & Eakin, J. (2013). Group trauma-focused cognitive-behavioural therapy with former child soldiers and other war-affected boys in the DR Congo: a randomised controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 54(11), 1231-1241. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12094
McMullen, J. D., O'Callaghan, P. S., Richards, J. A., Eakin, J. G., & Rafferty, H. (2012). Screening for traumatic exposure and psychological distress among war-affected adolescents in post-conflict northern Uganda. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(9), 1489-1498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-011-0454-9
Mels, C., Derluyn, I., Broekaert, E., & Rosseel, Y. (2009). Screening for traumatic exposure and posttraumatic stress symptoms in adolescents in the war-affected eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 163(6), 525-530. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.56
Mèndez, J. (2015). Report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. UN General Assembly Human Rights Council. https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FHRBodies%2FHRC%2FRegularSessions%2FSession28%2FDocuments%2FA_HRC_28_68_E.doc&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK
Modvig, J., Pagaduan-Lopez, J., Rodenburg, J., Salud, C. M., Cabigon, R. V., & Panelo, C. I. (2000). Torture and trauma in post-conflict East Timor. Lancet, 356(9243), 1763. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(00)03218-9
Montgomery, E. (1998). Refugee children from the Middle East. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine. Supplementum, 54, 1-152. https://doi.org/10.1080/14034949850153329
Morgos, D., Worden, J. W., & Gupta, L. (2007). Psychosocial effects of war experiences among displaced children in southern Darfur. Omega (Westport), 56(3), 229-253. https://doi.org/10.2190/om.56.3.b
Möhlen, H., Parzer, P., Resch, F., & Brunner, R. (2005). Psychosocial support for war-traumatized child and adolescent refugees: evaluation of a short-term treatment program. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 39(1-2), 81-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/j.1440-1614.2005.01513.x
National Guideline Alliance (UK). (2018). NICE Evidence Reviews Collection. In Evidence reviews for psychological, psychosocial and other non-pharmacological interventions for the treatment of PTSD in children and young people: Post-traumatic stress disorder: Evidence review B. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). PMID: 32757555
Neugebauer, R., Fisher, P. W., Turner, J. B., Yamabe, S., Sarsfield, J. A., & Stehling-Ariza, T. (2009). Post-traumatic stress reactions among Rwandan children and adolescents in the early aftermath of genocide. International Journal of Epidemiology, 38(4), 1033-1045. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyn375
Nilsson, D., Gustafsson, P. E., Larsson, J. L., & Svedin, C. G. (2010). Evaluation of the linköping youth life experience scale. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198(10), 768-774. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181f4acb6
O'Callaghan, P., Branham, L., Shannon, C., Betancourt, T. S., Dempster, M., & McMullen, J. (2014). A pilot study of a family focused, psychosocial intervention with war-exposed youth at risk of attack and abduction in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Child Abuse and Neglect, 38(7), 1197-1207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.02.004
O'Callaghan, P., McMullen, J., Shannon, C., Rafferty, H., & Black, A. (2013). A randomized controlled trial of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for sexually exploited, war-affected Congolese girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(4), 359-369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.01.013
Oberg, C., Kivlahan, C., Mishori, R., Martinez, W., Gutierrez, J. R., Noor, Z., & Goldhagen, J. (2021). Treatment of Migrant Children on the US Southern Border Is Consistent With Torture. Pediatrics, 147(1). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-012930
Olsen, D. R., Montgomery, E., Bøjholm, S., & Foldspang, A. (2006). Prevalent musculoskeletal pain as a correlate of previous exposure to torture. Scand J Public Health, 34(5), 496-503. https://doi.org/10.1080/14034940600554677
Onyut, L. P., Neuner, F., Schauer, E., Ertl, V., Odenwald, M., Schauer, M., & Elbert, T. (2005). Narrative Exposure Therapy as a treatment for child war survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder: two case reports and a pilot study in an African refugee settlement. BMC Psychiatry, 5, 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-5-7
Ovuga, E., Oyok, T. O., & Moro, E. B. (2008). Post traumatic stress disorder among former child soldiers attending a rehabilitative service and primary school education in northern Uganda. Afr Health Sci, 8(3), 136-141.
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., . . . Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
Patel, N., Williams, A., & Kellezi, B. (2016). Reviewing outcomes of psychological interventions with torture survivors: Conceptual, methodological and ethical Issues. Torture, 26(1), 2-16.
Peel, M., Lubell, N., & Beynon, J. (2005). Medical Investigation and Documentation of Torture: A Handbook for Health Professionals. Human Rights Centre, University of Essex. https://repository.essex.ac.uk/13102/1/fco_humanrights_medicaltorture.pdf
Pérez-Sales, P. (2019). Documentation of torture in children and young adults: Time to reflect. Torture, 29(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.7146/torture.v29i1.114028
Petersen, H. D., Larsen, M., Mannstaedt, M., Skytt, G. L., Vedel, O. M., & Wandall, J. H. (1998). [Documentation of violence against civilians in a civil war. Examples from Kashmir]. Ugeskrift for Laeger, 160(29), 4302-4306. (Dokumentation af overgreb mod civile i en borgerkrig. Eksempler fra Kashmir.)
Petersen, H. D., Lykke, J., Hougen, H. P., & Mannstaedt, M. (1998). Results of medical examination of refugees from Burma. Danish Medical Bulletin, 45(3), 313-316.
Petersen, H. D., & Wandall, J. H. (1995). Evidence of physical torture in a series of children. Forensic Science International, 75(1), 45-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/0379-0738(95)01766-c
Pham, P. N., Vinck, P., & Stover, E. (2009). Returning home: forced conscription, reintegration, and mental health status of former abductees of the Lord's Resistance Army in northern Uganda. BMC Psychiatry, 9, 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-9-23
Poole, G. E., & Galpin, G. (2011). Prevalence of victims of torture in the health screening of quota refugees in New Zealand during 2007-2008 and implications for follow-up care. New Zealand Medical Journal, 124(1338), 18-24.
Quiroga, J. (2009). Torture in children. Torture, 19(2), 66-87.
Region Skåne. (2022). Vårdprogram om vård och stöd efter tortyr https://vardgivare.skane.se/siteassets/1.-vardriktlinjer/regionala-vardprogram---fillistning/vardprogram-om-vard-och-stod-efter-tortyr.pdf
Reyes, H. (2007). The worst scars are in the mind: psychological torture. International Review of the Red Cross, 89(867), 591-617. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383107001300
Ruchman, S. G., Green, A. S., Schonholz, S., Hersh, E., Sikka, N., Baranowski, K. A., & Singer, E. K. (2020). A toolkit for building medical programs for asylum seekers: Resources from the Mount Sinai Human Rights Program. J Forensic Leg Med, 75, 102037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2020.102037
Ruf, M., Schauer, M., Neuner, F., Catani, C., Schauer, E., & Elbert, T. (2010). Narrative exposure therapy for 7- to 16-year-olds: a randomized controlled trial with traumatized refugee children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(4), 437-445. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20548
Russo, M. C., Azzalini, E., Rossetti, C., Maghin, F., Antonietti, A., & Verzeletti, A. (2020). Asylum seekers: Forensic remarks regarding 185 cases. Medicine, Science and the Law, 60(1), 30-36. https://doi.org/10.1177/0025802419850265
Sachser, C., Berliner, L., Holt, T., Jensen, T. K., Jungbluth, N., Risch, E., Rosner, R., & Goldbeck, L. (2017). International development and psychometric properties of the Child and Adolescent Trauma Screen (CATS). Journal of Affective Disorders, 210, 189-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.040
Saigh, P. A. (1991). The development of posttraumatic stress disorder following four different types of traumatization. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29(3), 213-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(91)90110-o
Sanfelici, M., Wellman, B., & Mordeglia, S. (2021). Unaccompanied minors’ needs and the child welfare response. Journal of Social Work, 21(6), 1533-1552. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017320958145
Schaal, S., Elbert, T., & Neuner, F. (2009). Narrative exposure therapy versus interpersonal psychotherapy. A pilot randomized controlled trial with Rwandan genocide orphans. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 78(5), 298-306. https://doi.org/10.1159/000229768
Sjölund, B. H., Kastrup, M., Montgomery, E., & Persson, A. L. (2009). Rehabilitating torture survivors. J Rehabil Med, 41(9), 689-696. https://doi.org/10.2340/16501977-0426
Steel, Z., Momartin, S., Bateman, C., Hafshejani, A., Silove, D. M., Everson, N., Roy, K., Dudley, M., Newman, L., Blick, B., & Mares, S. (2004). Psychiatric status of asylum seeker families held for a protracted period in a remote detention centre in Australia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 28(6), 527-536. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-842x.2004.tb00042.x
Sterne, J. A., Hernán, M. A., Reeves, B. C., Savović, J., Berkman, N. D., Viswanathan, M., Henry, D., Altman, D. G., Ansari, M. T., Boutron, I., Carpenter, J. R., Chan, A. W., Churchill, R., Deeks, J. J., Hróbjartsson, A., Kirkham, J., Jüni, P., Loke, Y. K., Pigott, T. D., . . . Higgins, J. P. (2016). ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. BMJ, 355, i4919. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i4919
Sterne, J. A. C., Savović, J., Page, M. J., Elbers, R. G., Blencowe, N. S., Boutron, I., Cates, C. J., Cheng, H. Y., Corbett, M. S., Eldridge, S. M., Emberson, J. R., Hernán, M. A., Hopewell, S., Hróbjartsson, A., Junqueira, D. R., Jüni, P., Kirkham, J. J., Lasserson, T., Li, T., . . . Higgins, J. P. T. (2019). RoB 2: a revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ, 366, l4898. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l4898
Sundelin-Wahlsten, V., Ahmad, A., & von Knorring, A. L. (2001). Traumatic experiences and post-traumatic stress reactions in children from Kurdistan and Sweden. Acta Paediatrica, 90(5), 563-568.
Taib, N. I., & Ahmad, A. (2019). Boys who work on the streets of Iraq are exposed to more traumatic events such as torture than schoolboys of the same age. Acta Paediatrica, 108(4), 725-730. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.14530
Tepina, P., & Giffard, C. (2015). The Torture Reporting Handbook: How to document and respond to allegations of torture within the international system for the protection of human rights. Human Rights Centre, University of Essex. https://www1.essex.ac.uk/hrc/documents/practice/torture-reporting-handbook-second-edition.pdf
Thabet, A. A., & Vostanis, P. (1999). Post-traumatic stress reactions in children of war. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40(3), 385-391.
Thabet, A. A., & Vostanis, P. (2000). Post traumatic stress disorder reactions in children of war: a longitudinal study. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24(2), 291-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(99)00127-1
Thakkar, M. J., Jaffe, A. M., & Vander Linden, R. S. (2015). Guidelines for Conducting a Victim-Sensitive Interview. J Child Sex Abus, 24(7), 717-730. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2015.1077365
The World Organisation Against Torture (OMCT). (2021). Best Practices to Protect Children against Torture in Detention. https://www.omct.org/site-resources/files/OMCT_Global-Guide-Children.pdf
Tol, W. A., Komproe, I. H., Thapa, S. B., Jordans, M. J., Sharma, B., & De Jong, J. T. (2007). Disability associated with psychiatric symptoms among torture survivors in rural Nepal. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(6), 463-469. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e31802f5dac
Tran, A., Brickman, S., Jordan, J., & Samuelson, K. W. (2020). Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression Symptoms in Survivors of Torture Living in the United States. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 208(8), 593-599. https://doi.org/10.1097/nmd.0000000000001197
Tremblay, J., Pedersen, D., & Errazuriz, C. (2009). Assessing mental health outcomes of political violence and civil unrest in Peru. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 55(5), 449-463. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764009103214
Tsai, A. C., Eisa, M. A., Crosby, S. S., Sirkin, S., Heisler, M., Leaning, J., & Iacopino, V. (2012). Medical evidence of human rights violations against non-Arabic-speaking civilians in Darfur: a cross-sectional study. PLoS Med, 9(4), e1001198. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001198
UN General Assembly. Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1465, p. 85, 10 December 1984. https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20I/Chapter%20IV/IV-9.en.pdf
UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), the Association for the Prevention of Torture (APT) and the Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions (APF). (2010). Preventing Torture: An Operational Guide for National Human Rights Institutions. UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/PreventingTorture.pdf
UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (2022). Istanbul Protocol: Manual on the Effective Investigation and Documentation of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/publications/2022-06-29/Istanbul-Protocol_Rev2_EN.pdf
UNICEF. (2015). Children in Israeli Military Detention: Observations and Recommendations. UNICEF Bulletin(2). Microsoft Word - Final UNICEF SoP Bulletin on Children in Military Detention - 31 Jan 2015.doc
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). (2003). Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response. https://www.unhcr.org/media/sexual-and-gender-based-violence-against-refugees-returnees-and-internally-displaced-persons
United Nations Voluntary Fund for Victims of Torture. (2016). How can children survive torture? Report on the Expert Workshop on redress and rehabilitation of child and adolescent victims of torture and the intergenerational transmission of trauma. https://www.omct.org/files/2017/01/24179/howcanchildrensurvivetorture.pdf
van Pelt, Y., Fokkema, P., de Roos, C., & de Jongh, A. (2021). Effectiveness of an intensive treatment programme combining prolonged exposure and EMDR therapy for adolescents suffering from severe post-traumatic stress disorder. Eur J Psychotraumatol, 12(1), 1917876. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1917876
van Willigen, L. H. M. (1999). Organization of care and rehabilitation services for victims of torture and other forms of organized violence: A review of current issues. In Torture and its consequences: Current treatment approaches. (pp. 277-298). Cambridge University Press.
Volpellier, M. (2009). Physical forensic signs of sexual torture in children. A guideline for non specialized medical examiners. Torture, 19(2), 157-166.
Weindling, P., von Villiez, A., Loewenau, A., & Farron, N. (2016). The victims of unethical human experiments and coerced research under National Socialism. Endeavour, 40(1), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endeavour.2015.10.005
Willard, C. L., Rabin, M., & Lawless, M. (2014). The prevalence of torture and associated symptoms in United States Iraqi refugees. J Immigr Minor Health, 16(6), 1069-1076. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-013-9817-5
Young, P., & Gordon, M. S. (2016). Mental health screening in immigration detention: A fresh look at Australian government data. Australas Psychiatry, 24(1), 19-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/1039856215624247
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Torture Journal
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
We accept that some authors (e.g. government employees in some countries) are unable to transfer copyright. The Creative Commons Licence Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) covers both the Torture Journal and the IRCT web site. The publisher will not put any limitation on the personal freedom of the author to use material contained in the paper in other works which may be published, provided that acknowledgement is made to the original place of publication.
