Neolithic Rituals involving Human Bones

Abstract

Neolithic Rituals involving Human Bones

In 1981 a destroyed dolmen was excavated at Trekroner in eastern Zealand (figs. 1-3). The burial layer appeared to be intact, and the examination of the bones showed that at least 10 individuals were represented -5 adults and 5 children. Each was represented only by a small number of bones, and this applied especially to the children, who were represented mostly by their lower jaws. There were only a few small pieces of the skulls themselves; also the long bones were sparingly represented. A C14 assay gave the calibrated value of 3280 B.C. It is probable that some more characteristic bones, especially skulls and long bones, had been removed for ritual use elsewhere.

In 1988 the passage grave "Jordehøj" on the island of Møn was excavated (Kaul 1989; Hansen 1993) (fig.4). At the top of the mound was found a posthole on the bottom of which there lay a collection of human bones from one or two individuals (including bones from fingers and pelvices), which obviously represented a ritual deposit of excarnated bones. One of the bones has been dated to 2580 B. C. (calibrated), which indicates Single Grave times. The deposition itself could have been made later, perhaps in the Late Neolithic, when the mound was enlarged.

Funnel Beaker Culture and Cultural Groups contemporary with it

A number of finds from graves of the northern Funnel Beaker Culture indicate special treatment of certain parts of the skeleton. For example the skull of the primary burial in the dolmen, "Klokkehøj", on Funen was missing, though the mandible was still present (Thorsen 1981).

The skeletal material from the passage grave, "Carlshögen" in SE Scania may be taken as an example of ritual treatment of human bones in the Funnel Beaker Culture (Strömberg 1971). Under the primary floor layer was found a "three-armed" pit (fig. 8), each of whose arms contained excarnated bones of a number of different individuals, including in one arm a skull without mandible. Presumably this was some kind of dedicatory sacrifice made when the passage grave was constructed. A similar pit was found below the chamber of a passage grave at lngelstorp, Scania. Together with the sacrificial stratum belonging to the dolmen at 'Hindby Mosse in Scania were found small heaps of burnt and broken bones, nearly all fragments of human skulls (Burenhult 1973). Similar discoveries of burnt and comminuted human bones are known from the sacrificial areas of a couple of passage graves in Jutland.

Recently at Varpelev in eastern Zealand there was excavated a passage grave with chamber contents intact and the bones in a good state of preservation. The human skeletal material from the Middle Neolithic burial layer was lightly burnt and occurred in heaps without organic order. In the heaps were also found sherds of pottery, and flint artifacts, often in a burnt condition as well. A reasonable explanation would be that both the bones and much of the pottery and flint were fetched from elsewhere and placed in the chamber in a lightly burned condition.

Although finds from the northern Funnel Beaker Culture, which document that rituals took place connected with particular selected bones, are emphasised, it should be remembered that there are also finds showing that the chambers of megalith tombs were used for "normal" interments of complete bodies. The bones seldom lie in anatomical order because they have been cleared up and arranged, and because of natural decay. Nevertheless there is much to indicate that the bones were in some cases taken out of the tombs to be used at rituals elsewhere. Such an "elsewhere" could be the causewayed enclosures, of which 22 are now known in Denmark (Andersen 1990(a)). The activities which took place at these sites included ritual use of human bones. Cranial parts and a mandible were found in the ditch segments at Sarup itself, and in the postholes of a semi-circular structure inside the enclosure there were found burnt human bones without skulls and mandibles. From the causewayed enclosure at Bundsø in southern Jutland came several finds of parts of crania, but never mandibles. Similar observations have been made at the causewayed enclosure at Hygind on Funen, where human skulls without jaws were found together with cattle skulls and other contents. It is attractive to contrast the deficiency at the last two localities with the surplus of mandibles in megalithic tombs, as for instance at Trekroner.

Also in Germany and other countries aspects of the skeletal material from megaliths have been a subject of discussion. On the basis of material from Mecklenburg, Schuldt (1972) proposed chat there must have been secondary burials proper, because he had excavated heaps of bones without organic relationship, often with the skulls uppermost. Conversely Grupe (1984) has been able to show that material, which gives the immediate impression of being unrelated, and therefore potentially an indication of secondary burial, at times only reflects tidying up processes and natural decay. From several German causewayed enclosures there are known burials (fig. 10) and depositions of bones (fig. 11), which indicate the ritual use of human bones.

Also in France conditions are not fully clear. There are megaliths in which burials of complete skeletons survive, while on the other hand there are many tombs in which the bones lie without organic order. In a megalith at La Hauge in Normandy the bones were in complete disorder, and there were 8 mandibles without a single skull. It is noteworthy chat many of the skeletons in the tomb of La Hoguette only a few hundred meters away were articulated and complete. The relationship between these two contemporary tombs is interpreted to be chat when the chamber of La Hoguette was filled up, the bones were collected together and placed in the chamber at La Hauge, while some of them, for instance the skulls, were retained and taken to the dwelling site or perhaps to a causewayed camp. Also the French causewayed enclosures have provided clear evidence of rituals involving human bones involving depositions of skulls without jaws or jaws without the rest of the skull.

Well published bone reports are also available from megalithic tombs in the British Isles, and in several cases certain categories of bones are missing. The long barrow at West Kennet in southern England deserves especial mention (Piggott 1962). Here there were too many mandibles compared with skulls, and far too few long bones. Also at Hazleton North it could be established that bodies were buried complete. In this case too some bones were missing, specifically some long bones and probably skulls. Bones are missing as well from other megaliths in the area.

Important discoveries at several of the British causewayed enclosures show that rituals took place connected with bones. For instance in the primary deposits in the ditches at Hambledon Hill were found many deposits of human skulls without cervical vertebrae attached to them (Mercer 1975). The lower jaws were nearly always missing. We find chat the categories of bone there are too few of in the megalithic tombs are those there are too many of in the causewayed enclosures, just as we have observed in the much poorer Danish material.

From Orkney megaliths we have good skeletal material showing chat both single, already de-fleshed bones (Quanterness), and complete skeletons (e.g. Midhowe) were buried. It is not impossible that the megaliths in which each individual is represented only by a few disarticulated bones, had transferred to them bones from other tombs. In tombs like Isbister (fig. 12), Midhowe, and Knowe of Yarso (fig. 13) the arrangement of the bones can be seen not only as expressing a practical wish for tidiness, but also as an expression of rituals around particular bones of the anatomy. It can also be seen in Orkney that certain bones are missing; again they must have been taken away for use elsewhere. Skulls are often under-represented, while lower jaws are entirely absent in one of the tombs.

Single Grave Culture, Late Neolithic, Bronze Age

A small number of discoveries tell of rituals connected with human bones in Single Grave times. At the Scanian cemetery at Bedinge was excavated a grave in which a female skeleton was accompanied by a considerable number of bones without organic connection, including five skulls without lower jaws (During 1989). Another interesting find comes from Metzendorf-Voxdorf in northwestern Germany, where a skull had been deposited alone in a bowl covered by a beaker (fig. 14) (Wegewitz 1960).

Indications of rituals connected with human bones are also known from Late Neolithic times. An example comes from Lille Vasby in eastern Zealand. Together in a single grave were found parts of the skeletons of three individuals, of which the skulls and most of the long bones were missing (Liversage 1966; 1980). The bones must have been removed after the dissolution of the connecting tissue (fig. 15). They could possibly have been the bones found in a nearby pit. There were also a number of separate skulls. The skulls of children seem to have been of particular interest at these rituals.

In many Late Neolithic stone cists the bones have been removed from the interior to give room for later burials, but in cases where there is no final articulated burial and all the bones are mixed together, it must be concluded that the cist was opened a last time with some other purpose than normal burial. Similar observations have been made in Late Neolithic burial deposits in dolmens. At some sites in Scania depositions of skulls close to Late Neolithic graves are also known (fig. 16).

In a pair of deep, stone-lined graves at Gross Upahl, Mecklenburg, there were found bones indicative of complex rituals surrounding secondary burials of already defleshed bones. There were two layers with bones of many individuals, often with skulls without jawbones uppermost in the heaps.

There are also examples from the Bronze Age of ritual treatment of human bones (Lomborg 1964), among which the burnt bones of a child found in the grave at Egtved should be mentioned. Some of these finds may imply ritual cannibalism, as in the case of an as yet unpublished discovery from Strandgården, Horns Herred, Zealand, where two heaps of disarticulated bones were heaped against skulls (fig. 17). Discoveries in other parts of Europe suggest that cannibalism entered the scene in the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age.

Conclusions

Whether we examine south Scandinavia or other places in western Europe during the Funnel Beaker Culture and groups contemporary with it, we find that bones are absent from the graves in a way which shows that certain categories more than others were objects of ritual interest. The finds also show a ritual and structural connection between the graves and the causewayed enclosures. The megalithic tombs and the finds in them tell us that we ought not to limit ourselves to a single interpretation of grave customs. In the same area can occur burial of complete bodies, of excarnated bones, and the removal of particular bones for ritual purposes. Instances both in France and Orkney tell that even in very limited areas there can be substantial differences, suggesting different types of rituals, of which a cause could be an interplay between different tombs.

In south Scandinavia, Germany, France, and the British Isles it looks as if the burial of complete bodies in megaliths was the commonest, and that they were disturbed later, and that particular types of bone were taken away -skulls, Jaws, or long limb bones. These were used for ritual purposes at the causewayed enclosures and perhaps elsewhere, at places where these bones are preferentially found. Also it is a common trait in the Funnel Beaker Culture and its contemporaries in Europe that the bones of the departed were treated with respect. It is very rare to find signs of their having been chopped across. It is clearly processes of decay that led to their fragmentary condition.

It is not until the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age that we find indications in northern Europe and elsewhere of rougher treatment, and traces of cutting up are now found. Also there are a number of finds that suggest the occurrence of cannibalism. A development towards rougher treatment of bones can possibly be detected as early as the Middle Neolithic.

Flemming Kaul