Democratic Deliberation and Impartial Justice
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7146/rc.1027235Resumé
Theories of deliberative democracy maintain that outcomes of democratic deliberation are fairer than outcomes of mere aggregation of preferences. Theorists of impartial justice, especially Rawls and Sen, emphasize the role of deliberative processes for making just decisions. Democratic deliberation seems therefore to provide a model of impartial decision-making applicable in the real world. However, various types of cognitive and affective biases limit individual capacity to see things from others’ perspectives. In this paper, two strategies of enhancing impartiality in real world decision-making are discussed. The first involves decision-making processes which detach decision-makers from their particular interests, whereas the second aims to enhance the quality of democratic deliberation and empathetic reasoning. We conclude that new forms of democratic deliberation may be necessary if we hold on to the aspiration of making decisions which are both democratic (responsive) and impartial.
Referencer
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Mansbridge, Jane, Bohman, James, Chambers, Simone, Estlund, David, Follesdal, Andreas, Fung, Archon, Lafont, Cristina, Manin, Bernard and Marti, Jose Luis (2010). “The place of self-interest and the role of power in deliberative democracy”, Journal of Political Philosophy 18(1), 64-100.
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Räikkä, Juha (1998). “The feasibility condition in political theory”, The Journal of Political Philosophy 6(1), 27-40.
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Rawls, John (1999). The Law of Peoples. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
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Rothstein, Bo and Teorell, Jan (2008). “What is quality of government? A theory of impartial government institutions”, Governance 21(2), 165-190.
Scanlon, T. M. (1998). What We Owe to Each Other. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Scanlon, T. M. (1982). “Contractualism and utilitarianism.” In Sen, Amartya and Williams, Bernard (eds.). Utilitarianism and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 103-128.
Sen, Amartya (2002). “Open and closed impartiality”, Journal of Philosophy 99(9), 445-469.
Sen, Amartya (2009). The Idea of Justice. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
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Setälä, Maija, Grönlund, Kimmo and Herne, Kaisa (2010). ”Citizen deliberation on nuclear power: A comparison of two decision-making methods”, Political Studies 58(4), 688–714.
Smith, Adam (2006 [1759]). The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Mineola: Dover Publications.
Steenbergen, Marco R, Bächtiger, André, Spörndli, Markus and Steiner, Jürg (2003). “Measuring political deliberation: A discourse quality index”, Comparative European Politics 1(xx), 21-48.
Stone, Peter. (2011). The Luck of the Draw. The Role of Lotteries in Decision Making. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sunstein, Cass R. (2009). “The law of group polarization”, Journal of Political Philosophy 10(2), 175-195.
Thompson, Dennis (1985). “The possibility of administrative ethics”, Public Administration Review 45(5), 555-561.
Thompson, Dennis (2008). “Who should govern who governs? The role of citizens in reforming the electoral system.” In Mark E. Warren & Hilary Pearse (eds.). Designing Deliberative Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1-19.
Vermeule, Adrian (2007). Mechanisms of Democracy. Institutional Design Small Writ. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Walter, Henrik (2012). “Social cognitive neuroscience of empathy: Concepts, circuits, and genes”, Emotion Review 4(1), 9-17.
Warren, Mark E. (2008). “Citizen representatives”. In Warren, Mark E. and Pearse, Hilary (eds.). Designing Deliberative Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 50-69.
Young, Iris Marion (2000). Inclusion and Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Barry, Brian (1989). Theories of Justice. London: Harvester – Wheatsheaf.
Barry, Brian (1995). Justice as Impartiality. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Beitz, Charles R. (1989). Political Equality. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Bruneau, Emile G., Dufour, Nicholas and Saxe, Rebecca (2012). “Social cognition in members of conflict groups: Behavioural and neural responses in Arabs, Israelis and South Americans to each other’s misfortunes”, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 367(1589), 717-730.
Chambers, Simone (2004). “Behind closed doors: Publicity, secrecy, and the quality of deliberation”, Journal of Political Philosophy 12(4), 389-410.
Cikara, Mina, Bruneau, Emile G. and Saxe, Rebecca R. (2011). “Us and them: Intergroup failures of empathy”, Current Directions in Psychological Science 20(3), 149-153.
Cohen, Gerald A. (1989). “On the currency of egalitarian justice”, Ethics 99(4), 906-944.
Dahl, Robert A. (1989). Democracy and its Critics. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.
Davis, Mark H. (1980). “A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy”, JSASCatalog.
Dryzek, John S. and Niemeyer, Simon (2006). “Reconciling pluralism and consensus as political ideals”, American Journal of Political Science, 50, 634-649.
Elster, J. (1998). “Deliberation and constitution making.” In Elster, Jon (ed.). Deliberative Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 97-122.
Estlund, David M. (2008). Democratic Authority. A Philosophical Framework. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Fraser, Nancy (1992). “Rethinking the public sphere: A contribution to the critique of actually existing democracy.” In Calhoun, Craig (ed.). Habermas and the Public Sphere. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 109-142.
Gaus, Gerald F. (1997). “Reason, justification, and consensus. Why democracy can’t have it all.” In Bohman, James and Regh, William (eds). Deliberative Democracy: Essays on Reason and Politics, Cambridge: MIT Press, 205-242.
Goodin, Robert E. (2000). “Democratic deliberation within”, Philosophy and Public Affairs 29 (1), 81-109.
Goodin, Robert E. (2004). “Democracy, justice and impartiality.” In Dowding, Keith, Goodin, Robert E. and Pateman, Carole (eds.). Justice & Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 97-111.
Gutmann, Amy and Thompson, Dennis (1996). Democracy and Disagreement. Harvard: Belknap Press.
Habermas, Jürgen (1996). Between Facts and Norms. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Habermas, Jürgen (2005). The Postnational Constellation. Cambridge: Polity.
Hare, R. M. (1963). Freedom and Reason. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Harsanyi, John C. (1953). “Cardinal utility in welfare economics and in the theory of risk-taking”, Journal of Political Economy 61(October), 434-435.
Harsanyi, John C. (1955). “Cardinal welfare, individualistic ethics, and interpersonal comparisons of utility”, Journal of Political Economy 63(August), 309-321.
Hoffman, Martin L. (2000). Empathy and Moral Development. Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Howard, Jeffrey W. (2013). “Democracy as the search for justice: A defence of the democracy/contractualism analogy”, Political Studies. doi: 10.1111/1467-9248.12071.
Kant, Immanuel (2008 [1785]). Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals. English translation by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott. Boston: IndyPublish.
Karpowitz, C.F., Raphael, C., & Hammond, A.S. (2009). “Deliberative democracy and inequality: Two cheers for enclave deliberation among the disempowered”, Politics & Society, 37(4), 576–615.
Krause, Sharon R. (2008). Civil Passions: Moral Sentiment and Democratic Deliberation. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Mercier, Hugo and Landemore, Hélène (2012). “Reasoning is for arguing: Understanding the successes and failures of deliberation”, Political Psychology 33 (2), 243-258.
Mansbridge, Jane, Bohman, James, Chambers, Simone, Estlund, David, Follesdal, Andreas, Fung, Archon, Lafont, Cristina, Manin, Bernard and Marti, Jose Luis (2010). “The place of self-interest and the role of power in deliberative democracy”, Journal of Political Philosophy 18(1), 64-100.
Mill, John Stuart (2008 [1861]). On Liberty and Utilitarianism. New York: Bantam Books.
Morrell, Michael E. (2010). Empathy and Democracy. University Park, Pennsylvania: Penn State University Press.
Morrell, Michael E. (2014). “Participant bias and success in deliberative mini-publics.” In Grönlund, Kimmo, Bächtiger, André and Setälä, Maija (eds.). Deliberative Mini-Publics. Colchester: ECPR Press, 157-176.
Nickerson, Raymond S. (1998). “Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises”, Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175-220
Preston, Stephanie D. and de Waal, Frans B. M. (2002). “Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases”, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25(1), 1-72.
Räikkä, Juha (1998). “The feasibility condition in political theory”, The Journal of Political Philosophy 6(1), 27-40.
Rawls, John (1971). A Theory of Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rawls, John (1996 [1993]). Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rawls, John (1999). The Law of Peoples. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Rosanvallon, Pierre (2011). Democratic Legitimacy. Impartiality, Reflexivity, Proximity. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Rothstein, Bo and Teorell, Jan (2008). “What is quality of government? A theory of impartial government institutions”, Governance 21(2), 165-190.
Scanlon, T. M. (1998). What We Owe to Each Other. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Scanlon, T. M. (1982). “Contractualism and utilitarianism.” In Sen, Amartya and Williams, Bernard (eds.). Utilitarianism and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 103-128.
Sen, Amartya (2002). “Open and closed impartiality”, Journal of Philosophy 99(9), 445-469.
Sen, Amartya (2009). The Idea of Justice. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Setälä, Maija; Herne, Kaisa (2014). “Normative theory and experimental research in the study of deliberative mini-publics”. In Kimmo Grönlund, André Bächtiger & Maija Setälä (eds): Deliberative Mini-Publics. Colchester: ECPR Press, 59-76.
Setälä, Maija, Grönlund, Kimmo and Herne, Kaisa (2010). ”Citizen deliberation on nuclear power: A comparison of two decision-making methods”, Political Studies 58(4), 688–714.
Smith, Adam (2006 [1759]). The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Mineola: Dover Publications.
Steenbergen, Marco R, Bächtiger, André, Spörndli, Markus and Steiner, Jürg (2003). “Measuring political deliberation: A discourse quality index”, Comparative European Politics 1(xx), 21-48.
Stone, Peter. (2011). The Luck of the Draw. The Role of Lotteries in Decision Making. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sunstein, Cass R. (2009). “The law of group polarization”, Journal of Political Philosophy 10(2), 175-195.
Thompson, Dennis (1985). “The possibility of administrative ethics”, Public Administration Review 45(5), 555-561.
Thompson, Dennis (2008). “Who should govern who governs? The role of citizens in reforming the electoral system.” In Mark E. Warren & Hilary Pearse (eds.). Designing Deliberative Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1-19.
Vermeule, Adrian (2007). Mechanisms of Democracy. Institutional Design Small Writ. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Walter, Henrik (2012). “Social cognitive neuroscience of empathy: Concepts, circuits, and genes”, Emotion Review 4(1), 9-17.
Warren, Mark E. (2008). “Citizen representatives”. In Warren, Mark E. and Pearse, Hilary (eds.). Designing Deliberative Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 50-69.
Young, Iris Marion (2000). Inclusion and Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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2015-01-21
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Herne, K., & Setälä, M. (2015). Democratic Deliberation and Impartial Justice. Res Cogitans, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.7146/rc.1027235
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