The entanglement of emotional labour and digital work platforms
A study of how professional gamers, influencers, and gig and crowd workers experience the affordances of digital work platforms
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7146/mk.v40i78.137268Keywords:
Emotional labour, Platformisation, Gig economy, Influencers, HarassmentAbstract
Today, work is increasingly performed on or through various digital platforms. This article aims to study workers at the forefront of digital labour. Drawing on 29 qualitative interviews with professional gamers, influencers, and platform workers, this study explores how digital platform affordances across diverse types of platform-mediated work shape the performance of emotional labour. The article’s main contribution is showing how workers experience the affordances of the platforms and, further, how the affordances of the platforms demand the performance of extensive emotional labour from the workers. This article shows how two high-level affordances mainly contribute to this: the capacity to transcend physical space and the immediacy and multiplicity of the digital distribution of information and data.
References
Abidin, C. (2015). Communicative <3 intimacies: Influencers and perceived interconnectedness. Ada: A Journal of Gender, New Media, & Technology, 8(5). https://hdl.handle.net/1794/26365
Abidin, C. (2016). Please subscribe! Influencers, social media, and the commodification of everyday life. University of Western Australia.
Abidin, C. (2018). Internet celebrity: Understanding fame online. Emerald Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78756-076-520181006
Abidin, C. (2019). Victim, rival, bully: Influencers’ narrative cultures around cyberbullying. In H. Vandebosch, & L. Green (Eds.), Narratives in research and interventions on cyberbullying among young people. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04960-7_13
Abidin, C., & Thompson, E.C. (2012). Buymylife.com: Cyber-femininities and commercial intimacy in blogshops. Women’s Studies International Forum, 35(6), 467–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2012.10.005
Anderson, S. L. (2017). Watching people is not a game: Interactive online corporeality, Twitch.tv and videogame streams. Game Studies, 17(1), 1–16.
Beck, J. (2018, November 26). The concept creep of ‘emotional labour. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/family/archive/2018/11/arlie-hochschild-housework-isnt-emotionallabour/576637/
Bergvall-Kåreborn, B., & Howcroft, D. (2014). Amazon mechanical Turk and the commodification of labour. New Technology, Work and Employment, 29(3), 213–223. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12038
Bishop, S. (2018). “#YouTuberAnxiety: Anxiety as emotional labour and masquerade in beauty vlogs”. In S. Driver, & N. Coulter (Eds.), Youth mediations and affective relations (pp. 89–105). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98971-6_6
Braun V., & Clarke V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Bucher, T., & Helmond, A. (2018). The affordances of social media platforms. In J. Burgess, T. Poell, & A. Marwick (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of social media (pp. 233–253). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473984066.n14
Chen, J. Y. (2018). Thrown under the bus and outrunning it! The logic of Didi and taxi drivers labour and activism in the on-demand economy, New Media & Society, 20(8), 2691–2711. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817729149
Cunningham, S., & Craig, D. (2017). Being ‘really real’ on YouTube: Authenticity, community and brand culture in social media entertainment. Media International Australia, 164(1), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X17709098
De Stefano, V. (2016). The rise of the just-in-time workforce: On-Demand work, crowdwork, and labour protection in the gig-economy. Comparative Labour Law & Policy, 37(3), 471–504. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2682602
Duffy, B. E. (2016). The romance of work: Gender and aspirational labour in the digital culture industries. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 19(4), 441–457. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367877915572
Duffy, B. E., & Hund, E. (2019). Navigating visibility and vulnerability in social media contexts: Instagram’s authenticity bind. International Journal of Communication, 13, 4983–5002. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/11729
Duffy, B. E., Miltner, K. M., & Wahlstedt, A. (2022). Policing “fake” femininity: Authenticity, accountability, and influencer antifandom. New Media & Society, 24(7), 1657–1676. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221099234
Franke, M., & Pulignano, V. (2021). Connecting at the edge: Cycles of commodification and labour control within food delivery platform work in Belgium. New Technology, Work and Employment, 38(2), 371–390. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12218
Fägersten, K. B. (2017). The role of swearing in creating an online persona: The case of YouTuber PewDiePie. Discourse, Context & Media, 18, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcm.2017.04.002
Gandini, A. (2019). Labour process theory and the gig economy. Human Relations, 72(6), 1039–1056. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726718790002
Gregg, M. (2011). Work’s intimacy. Polity Press.
Gerber, C. (2022). Gender and precarity in platform work: Old inequalities in the new world of work. New Technology, Work and Employment, 37(2), 206–230. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12233
Goldhaber, M. H. (1997). The attention economy and the Net. First Monday, 2(4). https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v2i4.519
Hardt, M. (1999). Affective labour. Boundary 2, 26(2), 89–100.
Hardt, M., & Negri, A. (2000). Empire. Harvard University Press.
Hardt, M., & Negri, A. (2004). Multitude. War and democracy in the age of empire. Penguin Books.
Heiland, H. (2021). Controlling space, controlling labour? Contested space in food delivery gig work. New Technology, Work and Employment, 36(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12183
Hennink, M. M., Kaiser, B. N., & Marconi, V. C. (2017). Code saturation versus meaning saturation: How many interviews are enough? Qualitative Health Research, 27(4), 591–608. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732316665344
Hochschild, A. R. (1979). Emotion work, feeling rules, and social structure. American Journal of Sociology, 85(3), 551–575. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2778583
Hochschild, A. R. (2012). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. University of California Press. (Original work published 1983)
Hopkins, J. (2020). The concept of affordances in digital media. In H. Friese, M. Nolden, G. Rebane, & M. Schreiter (Eds.), Handbuch Soziale Praktiken und Digitale Alltagswelten (pp. 47–54). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-08357-1_67
James, A. (2022). Women in the gig economy: Feminising ‘digital labour’. Work in the Global Economy, 2(1), 2–26. https://doi.org/10.1332/273241721X16448410652000
Jarrahi, M. H., & Sutherland, W. (2019). Algorithmic management and algorithmic competencies: Understanding and appropriating algorithms in gig work. In N.G. Taylor, C. Christian-Lamb, M. H. Martin, & B. Nardi (Eds.), Information in contemporary society (pp. 578–589). Springer International. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15742-5_55
Johnson, M. R., & Woodcock, J. (2019a). ‘It’s like the gold rush’: The lives and careers of professional video game streamers on Twitch.tv. Information, Communication & Society, 22(3), 336–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1386229
Johnson, M. R., & Woodcock, J. (2019b). “And today’s top donator is”: How live streamers on Twitch.tv monetize and gamify their broadcasts. Social Media + Society, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119881694
Johnson, M. R. (2021). Behind the streams: The off-camera labour of game live streaming. Games and Culture, 16(8), 1001–1020. https://doi.org/10.1177/15554120211005239
Järvinen, M., & Mik-Meyer, N. (Eds.). (2005). Kvalitative metoder i et interaktionistisk perspektiv [Qualitative methods in an interactionist perspective]. Hans Reitzels Forlag.
Kaine, S., & Josserand, E. (2019). The organisation and experience of work in the gig economy. Journal of Industrial Relations, 61(4), 479–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022185619865480
Lee, M. K., Kusbit, D., Metsky, E. & Dabbish, L. (2015). Working with machines: The impact of algorithmic and data-driven management on human workers. Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - CHI ’15, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 2015, 1603–1612. ACM Press. https://doi.org/10.1145/2702123.2702548
Lehto, M. (2022). Ambivalent influencers: Feeling rules and the affective practice of anxiety in social media influencer work. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 25(1), 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367549421988958
Marwick, A., & boyd, d. (2011). To see and be seen: Celebrity practice on Twitter. Convergence, 17(2), 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856510394539
Marwick, A. (2013). Conspicuous and authentic: Fashion blogs, style, and consumption [Working paper]. Retrieved April, 2013, from http://www.tiara.org/papers.html
Marwick, A. (2015). Instafame: Luxury selfies in the attention economy. Public Culture, 27(1), 137–160. https://doi.org/10.1215/08992363-2798379
McRobbie, A. (2016). Be creative: Making a living in the new culture industries. Polity Press.
Minseong, K., & Hyung-Min, K. (2022). What online game spectators want from their twitch streamers: Flow and well-being perspectives. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 66, 102951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2022.102951
Moore, P. (2018). The threat of physical and psychosocial violence and harassment in digitalized work. International Labour Office, Geneva. https://www2019.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---actrav/documents/publication/wcms_617062.pdf
Möhlmann, M., & Zalmanson, L. (2017). Hands on the wheel: Navigating algorithmic management and Uber drivers’ autonomy. The International Conference on Information Systems (ICIS 2017), South Korea, 2017, 18.
Nielsen, M. L., Laursen, C. S., & Dyreborg, J. (2022). Who takes care of safety and health among young workers? Responsibilization of OSH in the platform economy. Safety Science, 149, 105674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2022.105674
Nielsen, L. Y., & Nielsen, M. L. (2024). Tears and body insecurities: The ‘authentic’ influencer as changemaker? In J. Arnesson, & H. Reinikainen (Eds.), Influencer politics: At the intersection of personal, political, and promotional (pp. 121–138). De Gruyter.
Nielsen, M. L., Nielsen, L. Y., Wienke Christiansen, S., Nielsen, S., Clausen, T., & Dyreborg, J. (2024). Risiko, arbejdsmiljø og krænkende handlinger blandt unge med platformsmedieret arbejde (RADAR 2). Nationalt Forskningscenter for Arbejdsmiljø.
Orr, W., Henne, K., Lee, A., Harb, J. I., & Alphonso, F. C. (2023). Necrocapitalism in the Gig economy: The case of platform food couriers in Australia. Antipode, 55, 200–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12877
Pillai, V., & Ghosh, M. (2022). Indian female Twitter influencers’ perceptions of trolls. Humanities Social Sciences Communications, 9, 166. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01172-x
Poell, T., Nieborg, D., & Van Dijck, J. (2019). Platformisation. Internet Policy Review, 8(4), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.14763/2019.4.1425
Prassl, J. (2018). Humans as a service: The promise and perils of work in the gig economy. Oxford University Press.
Pultz, S., & Dupret, K. (2023). Emotions online: Exploring knowledge workers’ emotional labour in a digital context in an agile IT company. Human Arenas - An interdisciplinary Journal of Psychology, Culture, and Meaning. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42087-023-00364-4
Raun, T. (2018). Capitalizing intimacy: New subcultural forms of micro-celebrity strategies and affective labour on YouTube. Convergence, 24(1), 99–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856517736983
Raval, N., & Dourish, P. (2016). Standing out from the crowd: Emotional labour, body labour, and temporal labour in ridesharing. Proceedings of the 19th ACM Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing (CSCW ‘16), Association for Computing Machinery, New York. https://doi.org/10.1145/2818048.2820026
Ravenelle, A. J. (2019). Hustle and gig: Struggling and surviving in the sharing economy. University of California Press.
Rosenblat, A., & Stark, L. (2016). Algorithmic labour and information asymmetries: A case study of Uber’s drivers. International Journal of Communication, 10, 3758–3784. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2686227
Ruberg, B., & Cullen, A. L. L. (2019). Feeling for an audience: The gendered emotional labour of video game live streaming. Digital Culture & Society, 5(2), 85–102. https://doi.org/10.14361/dcs-2019-0206
Ruberg, B., Cullen, A. L. L., & Brewster, K. (2019). Nothing but a “titty streamer”: Legitimacy, labour, and the debate over women’s breasts in video game live streaming. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 36(5), 466–481. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295036.2019.1658886
Sedacca, N. (2022). Domestic work and the gig economy. In V. De Stefano, I. Durri, C. Stylogiannis, & M. Wouters (Eds.), A research agenda for the gig-economy and society (pp. 149–166). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800883512.00016
Standing, G. (2011). The precariat: The new dangerous class. Bloomsbury Academic.
Staunæs, D., & Søndergaard, D. M. (2005). Interview i en Tangotid [Interview in a Tango Time]. In N. Mik-Meyer, & M. Järvinen (Eds.), Kvalitative metoder i et interaktionistisk perspektiv. Interview, observation og dokumenter [Qualitative methods in an interactionist perspective: Interview, observation and documents] (pp. 49–72). Hans Reitzels Forlag.
Shapiro, A. (2018). Between autonomy and control: Strategies of arbitrage in the “on-demand” economy. New Media & Society, 20(8), 2954–2971. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817738236
Tenório, N., & Bjørn, P. (2019). Online harassment in the workplace: The role of technology in labour law disputes. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 28(3-4), 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10606-019-09351-2
Uszkoreit, L. (2018). With great power comes great responsibility: Video game live streaming and its potential risks and benefits for female gamers. In K. Gray, G. Voorhees, & E. Vossen (Eds.), Feminism in play: Palgrave games in context. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90539-6_10
Valenzuela-García, N., Maldonado-Guzmán, D. J., & García-Pérez, A. (2023). Too lucky to be a victim? An exploratory study of online harassment and hate messages faced by social media influencers. European Journal Criminal Policy and Research, 29, 397–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-023-09542-0
Wang, J., & Tomassetti, J. (2024). Labour-capital relations on digital platforms: Organization, algorithmic discipline and the social factory again. Sociology Compass, e13192. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.13192
Wood, A. J., Graham, M., Lehdonvirta, V., & Hjorth, I. (2018). Good gig, bad gig: Autonomy and algorithmic control in the global gig economy. Work, Employment and Society, 33(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017018785616
Woodcock, J., & Johnson, M. R. (2019). The affective labor and performance of live streaming on Twitch.tv. Television and New Media, 20(8), 813–823. https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851077
Zhang, N., & Wu, Y. (2022). Platformed playworkers: Game video creators’ affective labour and emotional labour on Bilibili. Global Media and China, 7(3), 319–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/2059436422109649
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Author and journal

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright Author and Journal.
Articles published after January 1 2024 are licensed under CCBY 4.0.
Articles published until December 31 2023 are licensed under CCBYNCND.
Articles submitted to MedieKultur should not be submitted to or published in other journals.