Why can’t we be friends (with streamers)
Content creators and streamers’ perception of parasocial relationships and audience management
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7146/mk.v40i78.136534Keywords:
Live-streaming, Parasocial Relationships, Influencers, Mental HealthAbstract
Parasocial relationships (PSR) have been viewed and defined as one-sided relationships between a viewer and a media figure. However, recent literature has suggested that advances in computer mediated communication on social media and live-streaming sites have complicated the traditional definition. This manuscript investigates not only the complexity of how PSR have evolved in the area of live-streaming, but also how streamers categorize and handle the relationships within their community. Using in-depth semistructured interviews with Twitch affiliate and partnered streamers, this manuscript argues that streamers have found that their communities have PSR with them during live-streams and on social media. Streamers cited PSR but also issues such as privacy concerns, audience disclosure of personal mental health concerns, and toxicity within their streams. This manuscript is not only able to investigate PSR from the side of the streamer, but also to further understand PSR and the evolution of the definition.
References
Abidin, C. (2018). Internet celebrity: Understanding fame online. Emerald Group Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1108/9781787560765
Biocca, F., Harms, C., & Burgoon, J. K. (2003). Toward a more robust theory and measure of social presence: Review and suggested criteria. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 12(5), 456–480. https://doi.org/10.1162/105474603322761270
Blight, M. G., Ruppel, E. K., & Schoenauer, K. V. (2017). Sense of community on Twitter and Instagram: Exploring the roles of motives and parasocial relationships. Cyberspace, Behavior, and Social Networking, 20(5), 314–319. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0505
Bol, N., & Antheunis, M. L. (2022). Skype or skip? Causes and consequences of intimate self-disclosure in computer-mediated doctor-patient communication. Media Psychology, 25(5), 706–723. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2022.2035769
Browning, K., & Hill, K. (2022). How streaming stars pay the price of online fame. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/29/technology/twitch-stalking.html
Carter, A. E., & Hoy, M. G. (2024). We’re all friends here: Examining transparasocial interaction on Twitch and its effects on strategic communications. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 24(2), 127–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/15252019.2024.2320343
Daniel, E. S. (2020). When heroes become villains: Developing parasocial relationships with characters and the expectancy violation meeting the actors. In A. Bean, E. Daniel, & S. Stewart (Eds.), Integrating geek culture into therapeutic practice: A clinician’s guide to geek therapy (pp. 145-160). Leyline.
Daniel, E. S., Crawford, E., & Westerman, D. (2018). Understanding the influence of social media influencers: Using the lens of Taylor’s strategy wheel and parasocial interaction to understand online vaping communities. The Journal of Interactive Advertising, 18(2), 96–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/15252019.2018.1488637
Derlega, V. J., Metts, S., Petronio, S., & Margulis, S. T. (1993). Self-disclosure. Sage.
Dodgson, L. (2020). Twitch streamers are sharing their stories of violent stalkers to spread awareness of how to seek help. Business Insider. https://www.insider.com/twitch-streamers-are-being-stalked-and-harassed-online-2020-9
Gandolfi, E. (2016). To watch or to play, it is in the game: The game culture on Twitch.tv among performers, plays and audiences. Journal of Gaming & Virtual Worlds, 8(1), 63–82. https://doi.org/10.1386/jgvw.8.1.63_1
Gillette, F., & Soper, S. (2015). How Twitch turned video game voyeurism into big business. Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2015-the-big-business-of-twitch/
Hamilton, W., Garretson, O., & Kerne, A. (2014). Streaming on Twitch: Fostering participatory communities of play within live mixed media. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ’14). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1315–1324. https://doi.org/10.1145/2556288.2557048
Hartmann, T., & Goldhoorn, C. (2011). Horton and Wohl revisited: Exploring viewers’ experience of parasocial interaction. Journal of Communication, 61(6), 1104–1121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01595.x
Hommadova Lu, A., & Mejova, Y. (2024). All the lonely people: Effects of social isolation on self-disclosure of loneliness on Twitter. New Media & Society, 26(6), 3347–3369. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221099900
Horton, D., & Wohl, R. (1956). Mass communication and para-social interaction. Psychiatry, 3, 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1956.11023049
Iqbal, M. (2024, September 4). Twitch revenue and usage statistics (2024). Business of apps. Retrieved October 10, 2024, from https://www.businessofapps.com/data/twitch-statistics
Jiang, L. C., Bazarova, N. N., & Hancock, J. T. (2011). The disclosure–intimacy link in computer-mediated communication: An attributional extension of the hyperpersonal model. Human Communication Research, 37(1), 58–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2010.01393.x
Kowert, R., & Daniel, E. S. (2021). The one-and-a-half sided parasocial relationship: The curious case of live streaming. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 4, 100150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100150
Lee, H., Sun, Y., & Rojas, H. (2024). Parasocial relationships with live streamers: Evidence from South Korea and the United States. Asian Journal for Public Opinion Research, 12(3), 166–183. https://doi.org/10.15206/ajpor.2024.12.3.166
Leith, A. (2021). Parasocial cues: The ubiquity of parasocial relationships on Twitch. Communication Monographs, 88, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2020.1868544
Lim, J. S., Choe, M., Zhang, J., & Noh, G. (2020). The role of wishful identification, emotional engagement, and parasocial relationships in repeated viewing of live-streaming games: A social cognitive theory perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 108, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106327
Lou, C. (2022). Social media influencers and followers: Theorization of a trans-parasocial relation and explication of its implications for influencer advertising. Journal of Advertising, 51(1), 4–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2021.1880345
Matter, M. (2021). Twitch and mental health: The parasocial paradigm. Medium. https://medium.com/inspire-the-mind/twitch-and-mental-health-the-parasocial-paradigm-824b0dceed4d
McLaughlin, C., & Wohn, D. Y. (2021). Predictors of parasocial interaction and relationships in live streaming. Convergence, 27(6), 1714–1734. https://doi.org/10.1177/13548565211027807
McLeod, P. L. (1997). A comprehensive model of anonymity in computer-supported group decision making. The 18th International Conference on Information Systems, Atlanta.
Nabi, R., Biely, E. N., Morgan, S. J., & Stitt, C. R. (2003). Reality-based television programming and the psychology of its appeal. Media Psychology, 5(4), 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532785XMEP0504_01
Nguyen, M., Bin, Y. S., & Campbell, A. (2012). Comparing online and offline self-disclosure: A systematic review. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 15(2), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0277
Orme, S. (2021). “Just watching:” A qualitative analysis of non-players’ motivations for video game spectatorship. New Media & Society, 24(10), 2252–2269. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444821989350
Petronio, S. (2002). Boundaries of privacy: Dialectics of disclosure. State University of New York Press. Powell, S. (2022) Twitch: Concerns over streamers’ mental health. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-60109997
Russell, A. (2020). The influencer code: How to unlock the power of influencer marketing. Hatherleigh Company.
Rains, S. A., Brunner, S. R., & Oman, K. (2016). Self-disclosure and new communication technologies: The implications of receiving superficial self-disclosures from friends. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 33(1), 42–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407514562561
Seering, J., Kraut, R., & Dabbish, L. (2017). Shaping pro and anti-social behavior on twitch through moderation and example-setting. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing, 111–125.
Sherrick, B., Smith, C., Jia, Y., Thomas, B., & Franklin, S. (2023). How parasocial phenomena contribute to sense of community on Twitch. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 67(1), 47–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2022.2151599
Singleton, R. & Straits, B. (2009). Survey Research. In R. Singleton & B. Straits (Eds.) Approaches to social research. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Sjöblom, M., & Hamari, J. (2017). Why do people watch others play video games? An empirical study on the motivations of Twitch users. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 985–996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.10.019
Sjöblom, M., Törhönen, M., Hamari, J., & Macey, J. (2019). The ingredients of Twitch streaming: Affordances of game streams. Computers in Human Behavior, 92, 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.10.012
Taylor, T. L. (2018). Watch me play. Princeton University Press.
Walther, J. B., Kashian, N., Jang, J. W., Shin, S. Y., Dai, Y. (N.), & Koutamanis, M. (2016). The effect of message persistence and disclosure on liking in computer-mediated communication. Media Psychology, 21(2), 308–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2016.1247718
Walther, M., Pertov, P., Smith, R., Young, D., de Vries, P., & Stel, M. (2022). Emojis in deceptive online communication: The frequency and type of emoji in deceptive and non-deceptive online messaging. The Open Psychology Journal, 15. https://doi.org/10.2174/18743501-v15-e2207050
Wohn, D. Y., & Freeman, G. (2020). Live streaming, playing, and money spending behaviors in eSports. Games and Culture, 15(1), 73–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412019859184
Woodcock, J., & Johnson, M. R. (2019). The affective labor and performance of live streaming on Twitch.tv. Television & New Media, 20(8), 813–823. https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851077
Wulf, T., Schneider, F. M., & Queck, J. (2021). Exploring viewers’ experiences of parasocial interaction with video game streamers on Twitch. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 24(10), 648–653. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0546
Yan, Q., & Yang, F. (2021). From parasocial to parakin: Co-creating idols on social media. New Media & Society, 23(9), 2593–2615. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820933313
Yuan, S., & Lou, C. (2020). How social media influencers foster relationships with followers: The roles of source credibility and fairness in parasocial relationship and product interest. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 20(2), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/15252019.2020.1769514
Zhang, Z. (2023). Para-kin relationship between fans and idols: A qualitative analysis of fans’ motivations for purchasing idol-dolls. Online Media and Global Communication, 2(3), 404–421. https://doi.org/10.1515/omgc-2023-0019
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Author and journal

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright Author and Journal.
Articles published after January 1 2024 are licensed under CCBY 4.0.
Articles published until December 31 2023 are licensed under CCBYNCND.
Articles submitted to MedieKultur should not be submitted to or published in other journals.