Gendering hatred
Adding ‘gender’ to the hate crime equation?
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7146/kkf.v34i1.132020Nøgleord:
hate crimes, law, femicide, violence against women, gender-based crimeResumé
Drawing on insights from human rights law, femicide laws, and hate crime studies, this article discusses the viability of including ‘gender’ in hate crime legislation, and the extent to which a legal approach of ‘gender-based hate crimes’ could serve a more effi cient response to the global prevalence of violence against women than similar types of legal measurements. The article argues that although there are sound principal reasons for including ‘gender’ in hate crime legislation, its inclusion is complicated by substantial conceptual and practical challenges, motivating instead a plethora of legal and non-legal approaches to counter and combat systemic violence against women.
Referencer
ACUNS. 2014. Femicide – A global issue that demands action, Volume 2. Vienna: ACUNS.
Benier, K. 2016. Global Terrorism Events and Ensuing Hate Incidents. In Schweppe, J. and Walters, M. eds., The Globalization of Hate. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 79-95. DOI:10.1177/0269758017693087
Boyle, K. 2019. What’s in a Name? Theorising the Inter-relationships of Gender and Violence. Feminist Theory 20(1), 19–36. DOI:10.1177/1464700118754957
Brudholm, T. 2018. Hatred Beyond Bigorty. In T. Brudholm & B. S. Johansen eds., Hate, Politics, Law – Critical Perspectives on Combating Hate. Ocford: Oxford University Press, 53-75. DOI:10.1093/ oso/9780190465544.001.0001
Card, C. 1996. Rape as a Weapon of War. Hypatia 11(4), 5-18.
Chakraborti, N. and Garland, J. 2012. Reconceptualizing hate crime victimization through the lens of vulnerability and ‘difference’. Theoretical Criminology 16(4), 499-514. DOI:10.1177/1362480612439432
Chakraborti, N. 2015. Re-Thinking Hate Crime: Fresh Challenges for Policy and Practice. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 30(10), 1738-1754. DOI:10.1177/0886260514548581
COWI. 2015. Kortlægning af hadforbrydelser i Danmark.
Cunneen, C. 2001. Assessing the outcomes of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody. Health Sociology Review 10(2), 53-64. DOI:10.5172/hesr.2001.10.2.53
Dixon, B. and Gadd, D. 2006. Getting the message? ‘New’ Labour and the criminalization of ‘hate’. Criminology & Criminal Justice 6(3), 309-328. DOI:10.1177/1748895806065532
DR. 2022. Ved årsskiftet blev fl ere beskyttet mod hadforbrydelser: ’Jeg føler mig tryg ved at anmelde det nu’. DR Politik. [online]. [accessed March 12, 2022]. Available from: https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/politik/ved-aarsskiftet-blev-fl ere-beskyttet-mod-hadforbrydelser-jeg-foeler-mig-tryg-ved
Duff, R. & Marshall, S. 2018. Criminalizing Hatred. In T. Brudholm & B. S. Johansen eds. Hate, Politics, Law – Critical Perspectives on Combating Hate. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 115-149. DOI:10.1093/oso/9780190465544.001.0001.
EIGE. 2021. Gender Equality Index. Compare Countries 2021. [online]. [accessed March 12, 2022]. Available from: https://eige.europa.eu/gender-equality-index/2021/compare-countries
FRA. 2012. Survey on violence against women in EU. Data and Maps. [online]. [accessed March 12, 2022]. Available from: https://fra.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/data-and-maps/survey-dataexplorer-violence-against-women-survey
Gorar, M. 2021. Honour Based Crimes and the Law - Defi ning the Limits of Honour Based Violence and Abuse. London: Routledge.
Grattet, R. and Jenness, V. 2008. Transforming Symbolic Law into Organizational Action: Hate Crime Policy and Law Enforcement Practice. Social Forces 87(1), 501-527.
Grossman, S. & Lundy, M. 2007. Domestic Violence Across Race and Ethnicity. Violence against Women 13(10), 1029-1052. DOI:10.1177/1077801207306018
Hall, N. 2005. Hate Crime. Devon: Willan.
Haynes, A. and Schweppe, J. 2020. Should hate crime legislation include misogynistic crimes? In Sternberg, R.J. ed., Perspectives on hate: How it originates, develops, manifests, and spreads.
Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association, 277–297. DOI:10.1037/0000180-013
Heinze, E. 2018. Toward a Legal Concept of Hatred - Democracy, Ontology, and the Limits of Deconstruction. In T. Brudholm & B. S. Johansen eds. Hate, Politics, Law – Critical Perspectives on
Combating Hate. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 94-112. DOI:10.1093/oso/9780190465544.001.0001
Henry, N. and Powell, A. 2015. Embodied Harms: Gender, Shame, and Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence. Violence against Women 21(6), 758-779. DOI:10.1177/1077801215576581.
Howe, A. and Alaattinoğlu, D. 2019. Contesting Femicide: Feminism and the Power of Law Revisited. Milton: Routledge.
Iganski, P. 2001. Hate Crimes Hurt More. American Behavioral Scientist 45(4), 626-638. DOI:10.1177/0002764201045004006.
Iganski, P. and Levin, J. 2015. Hate Crime: A Global Perspective. London: Routledge.
Jacobs, J. and Potter, K. 1998. Hate Crimes: Criminal Law and Identity Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lagarde, M. 2006. Prefacio. In Radford, J. & Russell, D. eds. La Política del Asesinato de las Mujeres. México: Ceiich/Unam.
Levin, J. and McDevitt, J. 2020. Hate Crimes in Transition. In Sternberg, R.J. ed., Perspectives on hate: How it originates, develops, manifests, and spreads. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association, 179-201. DOI:10.1037/0000180-009.
MacKinnon 1979. Sexual Harassment of Working Women: A Case of Sex Discrimination. London: Yale University Press.
Mason-Bish, H. 2014. We Need to Talk about Women: Examining the Place of Gender in Hate Crime Policy. In Chakraborti, N. and Garland, J. eds., Responding to Hate Crime. Bristol: Policy Press. DOI:10.1332/policypress/9781447308768.001.0001.
Mason, G., Maher, J., McCulloch, J., Pickering, S., Wickes R. and McKay, C. eds. 2017. Policing Hate Crime – Understanding Communities and Prejudice. London: Routledge.
Moral, P. and Neumann, P. 2018. The Making and Unmaking of Feminicidio/Femicidio Laws in Mexico and Nicaragua. Law & Society Review 53(2), 452-486. DOI:10.1111/lasr.12380
Neumann, P. 2022. “If It’s Not Femicide, It’s Still Murder”. Feminist Criminology 17(1), 139-159. DOI:10.1177/15570851211037271
OSCE. 2022. What is hate crime. Hate Crime Reporting. [online]. [accessed March 12, 2022]. Available from: https://hatecrime.osce.org/#participating-states
Perry, B. 2001. In the Name of Hate: Understanding Hate Crimes. New York: Routledge.
Perry, B. and Olsson, P. 2009. Hate Crime as a Human Rights Violation. In Perry, B. and Iganski, P. eds., Hate Crime as a Human Rights Violation Vol. 2. Westport: Praeger, 175-191.
Perry, B. and Alvi, S. 2012. “We are All Vulnerable”: The In Terrorem Effects of Hate Crimes. International Review of Victimology, 18(1), 57-71. DOI:10.1177/0269758011422475
Perry, B. 2013. Gendered Islamophobia: Hate crime against Muslim women. Social Identities 20(1), 74-89. DOI:10.1080/13504630.2013.864467
Perry, B. and Samuels-Wortley, K. 2021. “We’re Not Where We Should Be”: Enhancing Law Enforcement Responses to Hate Crime. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 63(2), 68-98. DOI:10.3138/cjccj.2020-0057
Radford, J. & Russell, D. 1992. The Politics of Woman Killing. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Rantala, M. 2019. Finland on Trial. In Howe, A. and Alaattinoğlu, D. eds., Contesting Femicide: Feminism and the Power of Law Revisited. Milton: Routledge, 130-142.
Rempel, J. and Sutherland, S. 2020. Hate: Theory and Implications for Intimate Relationships. In Aumer, K. ed., The Psychology of Love and Hate in Intimate Relationships. Switzerland: Springer, 105-129.
Shepherd, L. 2019. Handbook on Gender and Violence. Elgar Online.
Smart, C. 1989. Feminism and the Power of Law. London: Routledge.
Smart, C. 2019. Preface. In Howe, A. and Alaattinoğlu, D. eds., Contesting Femicide: Feminism and the Power of Law Revisited. Milton: Routledge, ix-xii.
Smith, K. 2018. Femicide. In Lombard, N. ed., The Routledge Handbook of Gender and Violence. Boca Raton: Routledge, 158-170.
Sokoloff, N. and Dupont, I. 2005. Domestic Violence at the Intersections of Race, Class, and Gender. Violence against Women 11(1), 38-64. DOI:10.1177/1077801204271476.
Stanko, E. 2001. Re-Conceptualising the Policing of Hatred: Confessions and Worrying Dilemmas of a Consultant. Law and Critique 12(3), 309-329. DOI:10.1023/A:1013784203982
Stark, E. 2009. Rethinking Coercive Control. Violence against Women 15(12), 1509-1525. DOI:10.1177/1077801209347452
Stotzer, R. and Sabagala, A. 2020. ‘Message’ Crimes: Understanding the Community Impacts of Bias Crime. In Sternberg, R.J. ed., Perspectives on hate: How it originates, develops, manifests, and spreads. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association, 251-276. DOI:10.1037/0000180-012
The Danish Ministry of Justice. 2020. Udsathed for vold og andre former for kriminalitet - Offerundersøgelserne 2005-2018.
Toledo, P. 2019. Criminalising Femicide in Latin American Countries – Legal Power Working for Women? In Howe, A. and Alaattinoğlu, D. eds., Contesting Femicide: Feminism and the Power of Law Revisited. Milton: Routledge, 39-52. DOI:10.4324/9781351068048-4
TV2. 2022. Kvinder undgår at færdes alene i nattelivet – fl ertal frygter overfald, viser ny måling. TV2 Nyheder. [online]. [accessed March 12, 2022]. Available from: https://nyheder.tv2.dk/samfund/2022-02-11-kvinder-undgaar-at-faerdes-alene-i-nattelivet-fl ertal-frygter-overfald-viser-ny
Walklate, S., Fitz-Gibbon, K., McCulloch, J. and Maher, J. 2020. Towards a Global Femicide Index – Counting the Costs. London: Routledge.
Walters, M. 2018. Repairing the harms of hate crime. In Hall, N., Corb A., Giannasi, P., and Grieve, J. eds. The Routledge International Handbook on Hate Crime, 400-410.
Walters, M., Owusu-Bempah, A. and Wiedlitzka, S. 2018. Hate Crime and the ‘Justice Gap’: The Case for Law Reform. Criminal Law Review 12, 961-986.
WHO. 2021. Violence against women. WHO Fact Sheets [online]. [accessed March 12, 2022]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women
Weil, S., Corradi, C., and M. Naudi. 2018. Femicide Across Europe. Bristol: Policy Press.
Zalewski, M. 2010. ‘I Don’t Even Know What Gender Is’. Review of International Studies 36(1), 3-27. DOI:10.1017/S0260210509990489
Downloads
Publiceret
Citation/Eksport
Nummer
Sektion
Licens
Copyright (c) 2023 Natalie Gunthel
Dette værk er under følgende licens Creative Commons Navngivelse –Ikke-kommerciel (by-nc).
Udgivelser i Kvinder, Køn og Forskning er beskyttet under Creative Commons License: CC Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0
